The world of the ancient Egyptians is one of the most famous in history. The Egyptians built huge pyramids, temples, palaces, and tombs. Their paintings and carvings are among the most splendid ever created, but they also produced much charming art with simple scenes of everyday life, work, and play that shows many details of their lives. Since Egypt has one of the driest climates in the world, much of this work has been well preserved from decay. Archaeologists first started to study ancient Egypt when the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte invaded the country in 1798. Egyptology has remained one of the most important branches of archaeology ever since. How the Egyptians livedThe remains from ancient Egypt, including clothing, leather, wood, and food, provide an excellent idea of how the ancient Egyptians lived. Much information has also come from tombs, including the paintings of scenes of everyday life on the walls of the tombs. Because the Egyptians thought that life continued after death, everything they might need in the next world was placed in their tombs. One queen, Her-Neith, was buried with her favorite dog. In a nobleman's tomb at Saqqarah researchers found a whole meal, consisting of barley porridge, quail, kidneys, pigeon stew, fish, a rib of beef, bread, and figs. In the early tombs there were models of anything the dead might require, such as houses, granaries, boats, cattle, and servants making bread and beer. Later these scenes were painted on the tomb walls to serve the same purpose. The tombs of the wealthy contained jewelry and other precious objects. The Egyptians preserved the dead as mummies by removing the internal organs and preserving the body with salt or other chemicals. In addition to those of people, thousands of mummies of sacred animals such as cats, ibises, and crocodiles have been found. Mummies of important persons were placed in elaborate coffins called sarcophaguses, often bearing a portrait of the deceased. The coffin of King Tutankhamen was made of solid gold. MedicineIn order to preserve the dead, the Egyptians needed to know a great deal about the human body. Their study of the body produced skillful doctors. Some of the earliest medical and surgical records have been found in Egypt. One of the earliest is the Ebers Papyrus, written about 1550 BC, which lists 700 cures for common sicknesses and problems. WritingThe creation of a written language was one of the Egyptians' finest achievements. The first Egyptian writing was in a picture form called hieroglyphics. The pictures, which stood for sounds of words, were cut or painted on the walls of tombs and temples and delicately colored in red, yellow, green, black, and blue. Hieroglyphics were in use by 3100 BC. They remained in use even after a form of cursive writing developed in about 2900 BC. It was written in ink with a pen made of reeds. This script was mainly written on papyrus, a form of paper made from papyrus plants. Another script began to appear in about 700 BC. The new form, called demotic, was used for ordinary writing. The earlier form, called hieratic, was then used mostly for sacred writings. The key to understanding Egyptian writing was the Rosetta Stone, a stone tablet dating from about 200 BC that was found in Egypt in 1799. The stone shows words in Greek with translations in hieroglyphics and demotic script. By comparing the Egyptian text with the Greek text a scholar who knew Greek was able to uncover the meaning of the hieroglyphics and the demotic words. Everyday lifeVillages and towns were situated near the Nile River because it was the chief highway as well as the only source of water. The houses were made of mud brick. Windows were small, high openings covered with loosely woven matting to keep out the heat and glare of the sun. The walls were decorated with bright frescoes. Straw matting and rugs covered the floors. Wall paintings are an especially rich source of information about how the common people lived with their children, hunted and farmed, raised animals, and performed daily tasks. The clothing, jewelry, and hair styles of all classes of people can be clearly seen. Egyptians were fond of perfumes and cosmetics. Both men and women wore a kind of green eyeshadow and outlined their eyes with a black substance called kohl. Women also applied color to their lips and nails. Vessels to hold cosmetics and the tools needed to grind them were included in tombs for use in the afterlife. Clothing was simple because of the hot climate of Egypt. Small children, servants, and laborers often wore little clothing. White linen was the most commonly used fabric, with wool for cloaks where warmth was needed. In early garments the cloth was simply draped and tied around the body or held in place with pins and belts. Men typically wore a skirt of linen and sometimes a vest, while women wore a straight, simple ankle-length dress with shoulder straps. Necklaces and wide collars decorated with gems were often worn. Clothing became fancier over time. Many people wore wigs. Men often wore beards, and a false beard made of metal was worn by the ruler—even a female ruler. ReligionThe ancient Egyptians worshipped many different gods. They even worshipped the sun. The main sun god, Re (or Ra), had his principal shrine at Heliopolis. Each city had its own collection of gods. Thebes had Amon (or Amen), Mut, and Khonsu; Memphis had Ptah, Sekhmet, and Nefertem. As Thebes grew to be the capital of ancient Egypt, Amon grew in importance as well. Eventually he was combined with Re, and Amon-Re was considered the king of the gods. Because the ancient Egyptians believed in life after death, Osiris, one of the gods of the dead, also became important. Worshipped with Osiris were his wife Isis and his son Horus. InventionsThe ancient Egyptians were a very practical people. They learned the principles of engineering that enabled them to build vast structures such as the pyramids. They did not have pulleys to aid in lifting heavy weights, but they were able to move large stone blocks by means of sledges, rollers, and ramps. The Egyptians observed the stars and worked out calendars based on the phases of the moon and on the solar year (see Astronomy). They also developed a complicated system of irrigation, which was based on the flooding times of the Nile. HistoryAs long ago as the Old Stone Age, tens of thousands of years ago, family groups headed by hunters and fishermen lived on the banks of the Nile River. The narrow valley of the Nile was at that time swampy and overgrown with trees, rushes, and papyrus (a tall, reedlike plant). Over the centuries, the landscape changed as the river brought down fertile silt to form a broad delta at the river's mouth. The people gradually cleared the swamps and built villages. They learned to cultivate the soil and grow crops such as grains and vegetables in the rich soil that was renewed each year when the Nile flooded over the land. They wove cloth from cotton, flax, and wool, domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, and geese, and made pottery. Later people built with sun-dried bricks, irrigated (watered) their land, made glass, and worked with copper. They discovered how to bake bread and brew beer. Eventually they also developed trade with other cultures and organized two political states—Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. The first written records of Egypt go back 5,000 years to about 2900 BC. These records indicate that the two parts of Egypt were united under a king named Menes at about this time, though there is also mention of earlier kings. Menes built the capital city of Memphis, which remained the capital for about 1,000 years. Its remains are near Cairo, the present-day capital of Egypt. Historians have grouped the pharaohs, or rulers of ancient Egypt, into 30 dynasties. The dynasties in turn are grouped into three main periods known as the Old, Middle, and New kingdoms. These lasted from about 2600 BC to 30 BC, when Egypt became part of the Roman Empire. The Three KingdomsThe Old Kingdom lasted from about 2575 to 2130 BC. It was during this period that the great pyramids were built. Just before the Old Kingdom, Zoser (Djoser), a king of the 3rd dynasty, constructed the world's first building made entirely of cut stone, the step pyramid at Saqqarah. This was an early version of the pyramid. The best-known remains in Egypt are the three pyramids of Giza, built by Khufu (Cheops in Greek), Khafra (Chephren), and Menkaure (Mycerinus) beginning in about 2550 BC, during the 4th dynasty. It is still not completely understood how the Egyptians were able to build such huge stone structures with the simple means of their time. Near the second pyramid, partly cut in the rock and partly built of masonry, is the Great Sphinx. The Sphinx has the facial features of a man but the body of a lion; it is approximately 240 feet (73 meters) long and 66 feet (20 meters) high. The pyramids were part of an architectural complex, or collection of buildings that included temples and other monuments. After about 2130 BC Egypt suffered civil wars and was split up into small warring states. This lasted until about 1938 BC. Then, after a long struggle, the rulers of Thebes defeated their enemies and once again united Egypt into a single state. During the Middle Kingdom Egyptian rule was extended into the neighboring country of Nubia (modern Sudan) and into Syria and Palestine. The capital was moved south to Thebes, far up the Nile in Upper Egypt. This was a period of great art and architecture, but few buildings from this period survive today. The Middle Kingdom was followed by a second period of decline, during which Egypt was invaded by a people known as the Hyksos. This Asian people disrupted the life of Egypt and they were not forced out until about 1539 BC. The New Kingdom began with the 18th dynasty. The greatest king of this era was Thutmose III, who ruled from 1479 to 1426 BC. This was the time of Egypt's greatest power and wealth. During this period many of the tombs and temples that survive today were built. These include the great tombs hollowed out in the rock of the Valley of the Kings, west of Thebes. One of the tombs found in this region was that of the boy king Tutankhamen. The Fall of the EmpireDuring the 19th dynasty strong kings protected the empire, and a vast building program was carried out by Ramses II, who ruled from 1279 to 1213 BC. The empire fell apart because the kings who followed Ramses had to use the army to defend Egypt against invaders. The country split in two parts, riots and strikes were common, and disorder spread throughout the land. The capital was moved from Thebes to the delta towns of Tanis and later Sais. Between 671 and 663 BC the Assyrians conquered Egypt, sacking Memphis and Thebes. In 525 BC Egypt became a province of the Persian Empire. In 332 BC Alexander the Great of Macedon defeated the Persians and invaded Egypt. When Alexander died in 323 BC he was buried in Egypt at Alexandria, the city he had founded. The PtolemiesAfter Alexander's death, Ptolemy, one of his generals, seized the throne. Ptolemy founded a dynasty of Egyptian kings that ruled for 300 years. Egypt was once more prosperous, but the Ptolemies were foreigners and unpopular. They taxed the people heavily to pay for the many wars they fought. During the reign of the Ptolemies, the famous Pharos, or lighthouse, another of the ancient wonders of the world, was built at Alexandria. An academy, with a splendid library where scientists and philosophers from all over the Greek-speaking world came to study and write, was built as well. The last of the Ptolemies was the famous Cleopatra, who killed herself after the defeat of her navy by the Romans at the battle of Actium in 31 BC. Cleopatra had supported Mark Antony in his struggle against Augustus Caesar for control of the Roman Empire. In 30 BC Egypt lost its independence and became part of the Roman Empire. After the Roman Empire was divided in the 4th century AD Egypt became part of the Byzantine Empire. In the 7th century Arab invaders took control of the country. (For the history of Egypt after this time, see Egypt.) |