- Catherine Wheel, a modern dance choreographed by Twyla Tharp, 1981.
The rhythmic movement of the human body—usually to music—is called dance. It is one of the oldest forms of human expression. Dance movements tend to be organized into patterns. They normally follow a certain order of steps and a regular beat, or rhythm. Dance movements are often closely related to the gestures of everyday life. Types of danceThroughout the world, two types of dance evolved as cultures developed: social dances and magical, or religious, dances. In early cultures social dances were performed on occasions that celebrated births, observed deaths, and marked special events. Magical dances were performed as a prayer to the gods to end a famine, to provide rain, or to cure the sick. Today there are many kinds of dance, from ethnic dances to popular social dances to classical and modern theatrical dances that feature highly trained performers. Ethnic dances are associated with particular cultures or ethnic groups. They evolved from the earlier magical dances and still reflect their original purpose. Certain groups in India, some Native American groups, and cultures in Africa perform such dances. Like ethnic dances, folk dances are associated with a particular country or locality. The hora, for instance, is linked to Israel while morris dancing is a traditional English form. These dances are often performed by dedicated groups of amateurs who want either to preserve the dance tradition of their ancestors or to share in another country's culture. They are also performed for entertainment, though, and are not associated with their original purpose or meaning. Social dances include such ballroom forms as the waltz and the tango in addition to more modern forms such as hip-hop. These dances are performed in a social setting and offer enjoyment and entertainment to the dancers themselves. In theatrical dance, such as ballet, modern jazz, and classical Indian dances, trained performers present the dance as an art form to an audience. Elements of danceRhythmIn dance, a regular rhythm is important. It is the best way to pace the movement. Rhythm is also necessary to generate the emotional power of dance. The sounds of clapping and drums can intensify the effect of the dance. A slow, heavy beat can create a mood of tension, while a fast beat may build the dance to a joyous or dramatic high point. MusicMost dances are accompanied by some form of music. Sometimes music can determine the style or dramatic quality of a dance. In the Middle Eastern raqs sharqi, more commonly known as the belly dance, the song or music sets up the mood or story of the dance. The dancer then interprets this through movement. In ballet, it is common for whole sections of music to be written in the style of the character dancing to them. Music can add to the enjoyment of a dance even when it was not written specifically for that dance. In the bharata-natyam, a form of Indian classical dance, many dancers wear bells around their ankles, supplying their own accompaniment in addition to the musicians. Modern social dances are almost always accompanied by music that not only helps the dancers keep time but also increases the excitement of the dance. In experimental modern theatrical dance, the concept of musical accompaniment has been stretched to include any kind of natural sound, electronic score, spoken words, or even silence. Costumes and other design elementsIn most war and hunting dances, the participants use weapons, masks, makeup, and animal skins to heighten the effect of the dance. Wearing special clothes in ritual dances is also a way of signaling a sacred occasion. In festive dances, too, clothes and special ornaments play an important role. They decorate the movement of the dancers and add to the gaiety. Social dances often have special clothes associated with them, such as the evening suits and sequined dresses of ballroom dancing. Modern dance companies often experiment with sets, lighting, and costume design. Loie Fuller was a U.S. solo dancer whose performances in the 1890s and early 1900s incorporated magical visual effects. She created elaborate shapes by draping herself in semitransparent material. Colored lights and slide projections playing across the floating material enhanced these illusions. Martha Graham, on the other hand, got rid of all unnecessary decoration on the stage. Graham was a U.S. dancer and a choreographer, which means that she designed the steps and movement of the dances. Her costumes were cut along simple lines so that the dancers' movements were clearly revealed. SpaceThe space where a dance is performed influences the way spectators perceive it. Religious dances usually take place within sacred buildings or on sacred ground, thus preserving their spiritual character. Dances that occur in a theater give the audience a feeling that it has entered a different world. Most performance sites create some kind of separation between the dancers and the audience. This strengthens the feeling of being in a different world. HistoryOriginsAlthough the exact origins of dance are unknown, cave paintings left by prehistoric peoples seem to indicate that even the earliest peoples danced. Dance may have been used to express emotion or to communicate with others before there was language. The early cave paintings suggest that prehistoric peoples also danced in order to control the events of their lives. They may have appealed to the gods for rain, for success in war, or for health. The first written records of dance date back some 4,000 years, to the ancient Egyptians. For them, dancing was an important part of life. Dance was a crucial element in the festivals held for Isis and Osiris, who were among the most important gods of ancient Egypt. Dance traditions in Africa and AsiaSince then every culture throughout the world has developed its own dance traditions. The origins of African dance are not clearly known. African dances were used to express joy or grief, to perform religious rituals, and to enjoy as pastimes. Some of these ancient dances survive to this day. Asia has a long history of formal, theatrical dance. In India, the earliest book discussing dance, the Natya-sastra (Treatise on the Dramatic Arts), dates to sometime between the 2nd century BC and the 3rd century AD. The bharata-natyam, a classical dance form based on this treatise, is an example of a long and unbroken dance tradition. Dances also spread from one region to another. The dances of the Japanese royal court, known as bugaku, were derived from forms imported from China, Korea, India, and Southeast Asia. Dance is also an important feature of the two traditional forms of Japanese drama—Kabuki and No. Development of dance in the WestAncient formsIn Europe, from the time that people began to form cities and civilizations, dance had several different purposes. For the ancient Greeks dance was an important feature of religious rites, or ceremonies, as well as everyday life. There were hundreds of Greek dances, and they reflected every mood and purpose. The dances associated with the god Dionysus were so elaborate that they led to the development of Greek drama in the 5th century BC. At festivals to honor Dionysus, dancers would act out stories about the god's life. Eventually the lead dancer became an actor and the focus of the dance began to include other subjects. Dancing was also important in ancient Rome, which rose to power beginning in about the 5th century BC. Festivals for Roman gods featured dances, and wealthy young Romans attended dancing classes. Dances were also part of the drama. By about the 1st century AD, however, the Romans had become less interested in simple dramas. For entertainment they preferred spectacular shows featuring many different elements. Dance was no longer the most important part of the show. Middle AgesThe period known as the Middle Ages followed the collapse of the Roman Empire in about AD 500. Toward the end of the Roman era the religion of Christianity began to take hold in Europe. Once again dance was used in religious ceremonies along with music and dramatic dialogue. These works soon became a form of entertainment and were performed outside of churches. Some dances celebrated religious feast days, but others celebrated the changing of the seasons and good harvests. At the same time, new kingdoms were being formed throughout Europe. Dance became an important part of the life of the royal courts of these kingdoms. The members of the court learned to dance and to move gracefully. At the same time, the ordinary people had their own dances. At times the court dancers would learn and adapt dances from the common people. In general, however, the court dances were more stately while the peasants' dances were more lively. The peasants' dances eventually became the ethnic and folk dances of today, while the court dances evolved into social dance. RenaissanceIn about the late 1300s a period known as the Renaissance began in Europe. This was a time of great learning and attention to the arts, including dancing. During this period dancing moved from being simply a form of entertainment to being an art. As in the days of ancient Greece, dance became associated with the theater. People known as dancing masters were hired to teach members of the court. They also began to turn the dances into short dramas by giving them a theme or subject. The courts began to put on festive pageants in which the dancers wore costumes and combined dance with music. At first these were performed only by members of the court, but later professional dancers began to appear. Some of the dancing masters were very educated men. They wrote books that describe these short dramatic dances, or balli, that they invented. Others wrote books that described how to perform the dances of the time. One of the best-known works was Orchésographie, published in 1588 by Thoinot Arbeau. Meanwhile the court pageants became more and more elaborate. A work created in 1581 for the queen of France, Ballet comique de la reine (comic ballet of the queen), is said to be the first true ballet. The work launched the form known as ballet de cour (court ballet), in which the French monarchs themselves participated. Other countries had similar forms of court entertainment. When the French king Louis XIV decided to stop participating in theatrical presentations in the late 1600s so did the other nobility. The dances then moved to theaters with professional dancers. This marked the beginning of ballet as a form of theatrical dancing separate from the social dancing that court members continued to perform at court for their own amusement. Theatrical danceBallet became extremely popular in 18th-century France. Individual performers often added steps and gestures of their own, and it was during this time that the first great soloists were recognized. In the 19th century a French choreographer named Marius Petipa went to Russia and helped make that country the center of the dance world. He created such works as Don Quixote, Swan Lake, and The Nutcracker for the Russian ballet. The Russian promoter and manager Sergey Diaghilev spread the Russian ballet through Europe and the Americas in the early 20th century. In the United States ballet gained its greatest popularity in the 20th century. The New York City Ballet and the American Ballet Theatre, both formed in the 1940s, became two of the world's top ballet companies. (See also ballet.) A new tradition in theatrical dance was born at the beginning of the 20th century when the American dancer Isadora Duncan started what is now known as modern dance. She was trained in ballet but found that it did not allow her as much expression as she desired. Rather than changing the standard postures and steps, Duncan did not use them at all. Her new form of dance was free-spirited and highly personal. Several dancers carried on the style of Duncan, but none was as influential as the American Martha Graham. Her company and her school trained generations of devoted students. Graham influenced every modern dancer of importance, including José Limón, Paul Taylor, Merce Cunningham, and Twyla Tharp. The American choreographer Agnes de Mille made dancing an important part of musical theater in 1943. Her production of the musical Oklahoma! in that year featured a combination of ballet, folk dance, and modern dance. The dances choreographed by Jerome Robbins for West Side Story (1957) brought a new edge to musical theater. Robbins, in his turn, influenced such later choreographers as Bob Fosse and Michael Bennett. Social danceOnce ballet became a professional form, the dancing done in the courts from then on was simply social dancing. In the 18th century social dancing moved outside the courts to ballrooms and private houses, where more people were able to participate. Over the years various dance forms went in and out of style. Some of the most popular were the minuet in the 17th and 18th centuries and the waltz in the 18th and 19th. Many popular social dances were adapted from folk dances, such as the polka (from Bohemia) and the mazurka (from Poland). Dances moved from country to country as well. Europeans brought their dances with them when they settled in the Americas. By the 20th century, however, many dances started in the Americas and moved to Europe. These include the tango from Latin America and dances associated with the jazz movement in the United States, such as the Charleston. As music became less formal so did dances. Popular music, from big band to rock and roll, continues to inspire new forms of social dancing. |