Early life

(1777–1825). Alexander was born on December 23, 1777, in St. Petersburg, Russia. He was the grandson of Empress Catherine II. Catherine took Alexander from his parents, Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich, later known as Paul I, and Grand Duchess Maria Fyodorovna, and raised him herself. Under Catherine's supervision Alexander received his education. At age 16 he was married to Princess Louise of Baden-Durlach, who was 14 years old at that time. Catherine died on November 17, 1796, and Alexander's father became the emperor of Russia.

Paul I. was a tyrant whose reign was a dark period for Russia. He was called the Mad Czar, and nobles and military men plotted against him. He was killed on the night of March 23, 1801. Alexander was crowned the next day.

Reign

The new emperor corrected many of the injustices of the preceding reign and made many administrative improvements. He also planned a vast expansion of public education.

Alexander, however, did not carry out the most urgent reform—the abolition of serfdom. Serfs were tenant farmers who worked their lord's land and had to give the landlord much of what they grew. In addition, serfs lacked personal freedoms. They had to get the lord's permission before they could leave the land, change occupations, dispose of property, or even marry.

Alexander described serfdom as “a degradation” that kept Russia at least a century behind the rest of Europe. But changing the system meant angering the nobles, who depended on serfs for their wealth and comfort. Alexander thus proved to be a visionary who failed to transform his dreams into reality.

Foreign affairs

The Napoleonic Wars soon consumed Alexander's attention. In 1805 he joined with England, Austria, and Prussia in the European coalition against Napoleon I of France. After the Russian defeat at Friedland in 1807, he deserted his allies. In the Treaty of Tilsit he agreed to divide the world with Napoleon. Rivalry developed, however, and Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812. After the winter retreat of the French forces, Alexander carried the war to French soil.

Napoleon abdicated soon afterwards. Alexander showed generosity to France and was a leading figure in the Congress of Vienna in 1814. Napoleon rose again, however, and was not finally defeated until the battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815. Again the sovereigns of the victorious countries, including Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany, met in Paris to frame a peace treaty. Once again Alexander intervened on behalf of France.

Final years

This period marked a turning point for the Russian emperor. Since the invasion of his country, he had become religious. Upon his return home, Alexander devoted his entire attention to the Russian Bible Society and to an unfortunate innovation—the resettlement of soldiers in military colonies. These ill-conceived colonies brought great suffering to both Russian soldiers and peasants.

In 1815 Alexander tried to create a Christian world order called the Holy Alliance. The alliance soon turned into a repressive league of monarchs against their own people.

For Alexander, this marked the end of his liberal dreams and he grew increasingly discouraged. He thought he saw “the reign of Satan” everywhere. Plotters and secret societies rose against him. Alexander refused to act decisively. He no longer wanted to rule. In 1825, during a tour of inspection in the Crimea, Alexander fell ill and died. He was succeeded by his younger brother Nicholas I.

Early life

(1818–81). Alexander II was born on April 29, 1818, in Moscow, Russia. He was about 7 years old when his father, Nicholas I, brother of Alexander I, became the emperor of Russia. Alexander was a lazy boy of average intelligence. His youth and early manhood were overshadowed by the overpowering personality of his father.

Reign

Nicholas I died in February 1855, at the height of the Crimean War (1854–56) between the Russians and the British, French, and the Turks. Russia had to surrender territory while accepting peace terms. The war had shown how backward Russia was as a country. Among Russia's educated elite, the defeat provoked a general desire for drastic change. With this in mind, Alexander, now emperor, began a program of modernization.

One of the first things that the new emperor did after the war was improve the communication lines in the country. A huge program of railway construction resulted in economic growth in Russia, which up to then was a mainly feudal farming society. The movement of grain, Russia's major export item, was made smoother. Joint-stock companies developed, as did banking and credit institutions.

The long-overdue end of serfdom was the second major reform that Alexander introduced. He did so despite bitter opposition from landowners. Tens of millions of serfs gained personal freedom and were given modest pieces of land.

Reforms were also made in the courts and in the education system. Political prisoners were released and exiles who had been sent to Siberia were allowed to return. The severity of Russian rule in Poland was relaxed. Cruel medieval punishments were banned. The status of religious minorities was also improved.

Last years

Alongside his humanitarian views, Alexander firmly upheld his father's autocratic principles. As a result, many attempts were made on the emperor's life. He was shot at, his train was derailed, and part of the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg was blown up. In 1881, while driving in his carriage, Alexander was killed by a bomb. His son, Alexander III, succeeded him to the throne.

Early years

(1845–94). Alexander III was born on March 10, 1845, at St. Petersburg in Russia. As the second son of Alexander II, he was not expected to become emperor. But in 1865, Alexander's elder brother Nikolay died. Alexander then began to study the principles of law and administration.

Reign

On March 13, 1881, Alexander II was assassinated, and the following day his younger son became emperor of Russia. From the beginning Alexander showed that he had no intention of limiting the autocratic power he had inherited.

Alexander wanted his nation to have only one nationality, one language, one religion, and one form of administration. He imposed the Russian language and Russian schools on his German, Polish, and Finnish subjects. He persecuted the Jews and destroyed the remnants of German, Polish, and Swedish institutions in the outlying provinces.

Foreign affairs

In foreign affairs Alexander III was a man of peace. Despite provocation, he did not turn hostile toward Germany until the last years of his reign. When the alliance between Russia and Germany ended in 1890, Alexander reluctantly entered into an alliance with France, a country he distrusted as the breeding place of revolutions. In Central Asian affairs he followed the traditional policy of gradually extending Russian domination without provoking a conflict with Britain.

Death

Alexander III died on November 1, 1894. His son Nicholas II succeeded him, becoming the last czar of Russia.