- Portrait of Thomas Jefferson, oil on canvas by Rembrandt Peale, 1800; in the White House …
(1743–1826). Thomas Jefferson was the third president of the United States. Before he was elected in 1800, he was known as the chief author of the Declaration of Independence. That famous document expressed his strong support of individual freedom. Jefferson believed that the only good government was democracy—a government of the people. “Give the people light,” he said, “and they will find their own way.” Early life, education, and marriageThomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743, in Shadwell, in the hills of Albemarle County, Virginia. His father, Peter Jefferson, was a land surveyor of Welsh ancestry. His mother, Jane Randolph, was descended from a prominent Virginia family. When Thomas was 2, his family moved to Tuckahoe, the Randolph estate on the James River near Richmond. Thomas started school at Tuckahoe when he was 5. At age 9 he entered a boarding school. When he was 14, his father died. He then boarded with the local schoolmaster to learn Latin and Greek. In 1760 he entered William and Mary College in Williamsburg. Two years later he began to study law privately. In 1767 he left Williamsburg to practice law. The next year he designed his own home, named Monticello, atop a mountain near Shadwell. Jefferson married Martha Wayles Skelton on New Year's Day in 1772. They had six children, but only two survived past childhood. Martha died after ten years of marriage. Jefferson never remarried. Declaring independenceJefferson was elected to the Virginia legislature in 1769. He became known as a strong supporter of American independence from Britain. In 1774 he expressed his views in A Summary View of the Rights of British America. He served as Virginia's delegate to the Continental Congress in 1775 and 1776. Jefferson's shyness kept him from playing a major part in the debates within the Congress. In 1776 he was appointed to a committee to write a formal statement of the reasons why independence from Britain was necessary. The Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress on July 4, 1776, was mostly Jefferson's work. Return to VirginiaJefferson left the Continental Congress in September 1776 and reentered the Virginia legislature. He proposed reforms to Virginia law aimed at ending the privileges of the wealthy and promoting individual freedoms. One important bill required the separation of church and state. In 1779 Jefferson was elected governor of Virginia. He was not as successful in this role as he was as a legislator. In 1780 he was caught off guard by a surprise attack on his state by British troops. His failure to defend the state cost him popular support. In 1781 he retired to his home, intending never to reenter public life. Service in EuropeJefferson's first retirement was brief. In 1782 he reentered the Continental Congress. Two years later he sailed for Europe to join John Adams and Benjamin Franklin as a negotiator of treaties. In 1785 he succeeded Franklin as American minister to France. Secretary of State and Vice PresidentJefferson returned to Virginia in late 1789. The next year President George Washington made him the country's first secretary of state. In this role he clashed with Alexander Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury. Jefferson became the leader of the new Republican (or Democratic-Republican) Party, which believed that the citizens of the country should have a say in the government. Hamilton led the Federalists, who believed the government should be run by a few men of wealth and education. Jefferson served in Washington's Cabinet until the end of 1793. He then retired once again. This second retirement lasted less than three years, however. In 1796 Jefferson was elected vice president when John Adams was elected president. PresidencyIn 1800 Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr both ran for president against Adams. It was the first election in which candidates ran together as members of a party. Before that, candidates ran as individuals and the top two candidates became president and vice president even if they were members of different parties. Under the new electoral system, both the party's candidates were considered to be running for president. The candidate who won more votes became president; the other became vice president. Jefferson and Burr's party won, but the two men received the same number of votes. The House of Representatives eventually chose Jefferson as the third president of the United States. First termJefferson's first term was a success. Government expenses and the public debt were reduced and unpopular taxes ended. The most important event was the purchase of the vast Louisiana territory from France in 1803 (see Louisiana Purchase). The territory stretched from the Mississippi River valley to the Rocky Mountains. Jefferson also launched the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore the territory. Second termJefferson easily won reelection in 1804. His second term brought difficulties at home and abroad, however. A war between Britain and France led to naval blockades that severely affected U.S. trade with Europe. In 1807 Jefferson signed the Embargo Act, which closed U.S. ports to foreign trade. The act was intended to pressure Britain and France into changing their policies. Instead, it hurt U.S. farmers, shipowners, merchants, and seamen. The act was repealed in 1809. Another problem involved Aaron Burr. Burr was accused of plotting to get the southwestern states to join with Mexico in an empire over which he would rule. Jefferson ordered his trial for treason. Burr was acquitted. RetirementJefferson finally retired from public life in 1809. He spent the last 17 years of his life at Monticello writing, looking after his plantations, and entertaining friends. His last great project was founding the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, which opened in 1825. Jefferson died on July 4, 1826. It was the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. John Adams, his old friend and political rival, died later the same day. A controversial figureFor many people, Jefferson continues to represent the ideals of equality and democracy. His image has suffered, however, because of his dependence on slavery. Jefferson owned about 200 slaves in an average year. In addition, evidence strongly suggests that he had a long relationship with one of his female slaves. Jefferson's critics say that the reality of his own life did not match the liberal ideas he expressed. This view has made Jefferson into a troublesome hero. |