For hundreds of years, the Roman Empire ruled over the entire Mediterranean basin, most of Western Europe, and large areas of northern Africa. The Romans rose to power gradually, with no set plan for world conquest. By 27 BC, however, most of the known world was at peace under their rule. The achievements of the Romans influenced the languages, literature, laws, methods of government, roads, and buildings of all of Western Europe. Ancient Rome can be divided into three periods. After a short period of rule by foreign kings, the people established a republic in 509 BC. The republic became an empire in 27 BC. That empire lasted for almost 500 years, until the 5th century AD. Culture and societyIn early Roman society the people were divided into two classes—the patricians and the plebeians. The patricians were the privileged people while the plebeians were the common people. Throughout the period of the republic the plebeians struggled to gain more political power, and the struggle helped shape the political institutions of the time. Political bodiesAt the beginning of the republic the Roman people replaced the kings with two magistrates called consuls. These consuls were patricians who were elected for one year by a body made up of both patricians and plebeians. The plebeians eventually won the right to be consuls. They also won the right to hold other offices. Two popular assemblies, one that dealt with military issues, and one that acted as a general legislature, consisted of elected citizens. The Senate, the most important political body, consisted of 300 men chosen by the consuls from the patricians. The Senators acted only as advisers, though the advice that they gave was almost always accepted. The Senate met in a building in the Forum, the center of public life in ancient Rome. The Forum was the scene of public meetings, law courts, and public spectacles. It was lined with shops and open-air markets. During the period of the empire the Forum became a religious center and the site of the city's most imposing temples and monuments. LawsIn 451 BC, Rome received its first written code of law, the Law of the Twelve Tablets. These were written on 12 bronze tablets. The laws dealt with such matters as reclaiming debts, the rights of parents over children, property rights, inheritance, and burial rules. This code was to form the basis of all private Roman law. SlaveryIn addition to the patricians and the plebeians, the third group of people in the Roman world consisted of slaves. Initially, Rome was a state consisting primarily of small farmers. But the process of creating the empire took them away from their farms for extended periods. At the same time, the Romans captured many people during their conquests of other lands during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. The Romans soon realized that these captives could be put to work on farms and as personal servants in cities. Slaves were used in Rome until about the 4th century AD. Art and religionAs the Roman world expanded, the people came into contact with many diverse cultures. The Romans were greatly influenced by the Greeks in particular. The first works of Latin literature were translations of Greek works, and many Roman statues were copies of Greek originals. In religion the early Romans worshiped their gods through elaborate rituals. There were no myths or stories related to the gods as there were in Greece, however. Guiding these state cults were priests, some of who were also senators. As contact with Greece increased, the Romans began to worship some Greek gods, such as Apollo. They also associated Greek gods with their own gods. During the empire the Romans adopted religions and gods from Egypt and the Middle East as well. Also during this time the emperors themselves were seen as gods. HistoryThe early Romans kept few written records. However, it is generally accepted that the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC. The first settlers were people known as Latins, and the region around Rome was called Latium. Shortly before 600 BC, Rome was conquered by the Etruscans, who inhabited the area north of Rome. Under the rule of the Etruscans, Rome grew in importance and power. Great temples and important public works were constructed. The other Latin cities acknowledged Rome as the head of all Latium. Trade flourished, and by the end of the 6th century BC, Rome was the largest and richest city on the Italian peninsula. Establishment of the republicIn spite of Rome's progress and development, the old Latin noble families resented the Etruscan kings. In 509 BC, the Etruscans were forced out of the city, and a republic was set up. This meant that a group of citizens would rule Rome instead of a king. Toward the end of the 5th century BC, Rome began to expand its control over neighboring territories and peoples. By 275 BC Rome had complete control over all of the Italian peninsula. Rome's only remaining rival in the western Mediterranean was the powerful Phoenician colony of Carthage in northern Africa. After a battle that lasted for most of a century, Carthage was finally destroyed in 146 BC. Rome then turned its sights to other areas, including Sicily, Spain, Macedonia, Greece, and Asia Minor. Governors managed most of the conquered lands. They ruled like tyrants and forced the people to pay enormous taxes. This money paid for most of the expenses of the Roman state. Soon there was a huge gap between the rich and the poor, both in the cities and in the countryside where there were many poor peasants. This led to bitterness and conflict between them. A few statesmen came forward to support the people. They proposed laws to distribute land more fairly. Another proposal was to limit the powers of the Senate. Birth of the empireThe tensions continued, however, and from about 133 BC the republic was caught up in civil war. Military generals fought each other to gain control of Rome. This situation lasted for nearly a century. One of the most powerful of these generals was Julius Caesar. After he managed to defeat his rivals, he took power in Rome. His enemies accused him of wanting too much power and assassinated him in 44 BC. This set off another period of civil war. Peace was finally restored, and Rome was established as an empire under the leadership of Octavian, who was also called Augustus. He was crowned Rome's first emperor in 27 BC. During Augustus' rule, the emperor gained absolute control over the state and came to be worshiped like a god. With the establishment of the empire came two centuries of peace. Literature and civilization flourished, and responsible men held power in the empire's territories. Paved roads led from one end of Italy to the other and into what is now France and Germany. Roman citizenship was sometimes given to free men throughout the empire, and Roman law was carried out in every court. The empire also expanded to its greatest extent during this period as it spread to Britain and the Arabian Peninsula. Development of ChristianityDuring the rule of Tiberius (AD 14–37) Jesus Christ was crucified in Palestine, which was part of the Roman Empire. Some of his disciples later went to Rome, where they established a community of the first Christians. Christians were often tortured or killed until the reign of the Emperor Constantine (312–337). In 313 Constantine issued a declaration of toleration for all religions. From about 320 Christianity was favored by the Roman state. End of the empireThe empire was weakening, however. Wealth brought greed and dishonesty. Roman society once again became split between the rich and the very poor. In an attempt to strengthen the empire, the emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome to the Greek city of Byzantium in 330. He renamed the city Constantinople. After the death of the emperor Theodosius in 395, the Roman Empire was split into eastern and western halves based in Constantinople and Rome, respectively. The western half of the empire suffered from repeated invasions. It was attacked in 410 by the Visigoths, a wandering nation of Germanic peoples from the northeast. The Visigoths captured Rome in 476, bringing an end to the Roman Empire in the West. The eastern half of the empire continued as the Byzantine Empire until 1453. |