More than one sixth of all the people in the world live in China. The country is imposing in other ways as well. It is the largest in Asia, and because of its size it is one of the most varied countries in terms of terrain and climate. The highest place in the world, Mount Everest, is on the border between China and Nepal, and one of the lowest places in the world is a lake in the northwestern part of the country. China's capital, Beijing, features the world's largest plaza, Tiananmen Square. GeographyChina covers about 3,696,100 square miles (9,572,900 square kilometers), including almost all of East Asia. It shares land borders with 14 countries: Mongolia, Russia, North Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan. The Yellow Sea and the East China Sea lie to the east, and the South China Sea lies to the southeast. High mountain ranges separate much of the country from its neighbors to the west. The Himalayas are to the southwest, the Karakoram Range is to the west, and the Altai Mountains are to the northwest. China can be divided into three major regions: the southwest, the northwest, and the east. The southwest is a cold, mountainous region. A large part of the area is taken up by the Qing Zang, or Plateau of Tibet, which ranges from about 13,000 to 15,000 feet (3,960 to 4,570 meters) above sea level. The plateau is surrounded by mountains with peaks above 20,000 feet (6,100 meters). Because of these great heights Tibet is called the “roof of the world.” The northwestern part of China is a highland marked by large desert basins. The eastern region of China contains almost all of the country's low-lying areas. Except for scattered highland areas, most of the region is no more than 1,500 feet (450 meters) above sea level. China's major rivers are the Huang He, the Yangtze, and the Xi. Plants and animalsThousands of different kinds of plants grow in China, and hundreds of those are found nowhere else in the world. At one time most of China was covered with forests, but today forests cover only about 15 percent of the land. Among the many trees found in China, the most valuable are the tung tree, camphor tree, lacquer tree, star anise, and privet. Mangrove swamps are found along the shores of the South China Sea, and there are rain forests on Hainan Island and in the south of Yunnan, both in southern China. China also has a wide variety of animals. It is home to many animals that have become extinct elsewhere in the world, including the great paddlefish of the Yangtze and the giant salamander in western China. Other animals and birds found in the country include giant pandas, takins, tigers, monkeys, alligators, pheasants, and laughing thrushes. PeopleThe Han, or the ethnic Chinese, make up more than 90 percent of the population of China. Han Chinese is the most widely spoken language, and one type of Han Chinese, Mandarin, is the official language. The country has about 55 minority groups. The government has discouraged religious practices, but small minorities practice Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam. In addition, some 20 percent of the people practice traditional Chinese folk religions. Most of the people in China live in small towns or villages. Only about 30 percent live in cities. However, many of the cities are quite large; in 1999 more than 30 cities had a population of at least 1 million. Among the largest are Shanghai, Beijing, Chongqing, Tianjin, and Wuhan. The rapid growth of the population has been a major concern in China. In the 19th century the country began to run out of land to support all of its people. In the 20th century the government encouraged each family to have only one child in an effort to control the country's population. The policy showed some success as the birth rate began to fall by the end of the 20th century. CultureChina's rich culture has developed over many centuries. Archaeologists have found decorated pottery that was created about 12,000 years ago. Writing developed very early in China. Written documents first appeared during the Shang Dynasty (18th to 12th centuries BC). Theater in China has ancient roots in religious dances and festivals. The literature of China also dates back many centuries. Over the years China has produced such great poets and philosophers as Laozi (6th century BC), Confucius (551–479 BC), Li Bo (701–62), and Du Fu (712–70). Calligraphy, or the art of forming letters, is one of the oldest and most basic forms of Chinese art. To the Chinese, drawing the complex characters of their language is very similar to creating a painting. Painting itself has a long tradition in China, as do pottery, jade carving, metalwork, lacquerware, furniture design, and textiles. By the 6th century AD China had developed porcelain, a special type of ceramic. This was more than 1,000 years before porcelain was discovered in Europe. EconomyChina is a socialist country, which means that the government plays a major role in the economy. For many years most of the businesses and farms were owned by the government. In the late 1970s, however, China's leaders began to reform the country's economy. They eventually allowed individuals to own some property and encouraged foreign companies to invest money in Chinese businesses. As a result the economy grew steadily into the 21st century. AgricultureAgriculture is an important part of the Chinese economy. Although it accounts for only a small portion of the total value, it employs about half of the country's workforce. China is the world's largest producer of rice and is among the leading sources of wheat, corn, tobacco, soybeans, peanuts, and cotton. The country also leads the world in the production of pigs, chickens, and eggs. IndustryAbout one fourth of the workforce is employed in industry. China has a large supply of natural resources, and much of its industry is based on the processing of those resources. Among the leading mineral products are zinc, copper, lead, iron ore, antimony (a metal used to make computer components), tungsten, and coal. Chinese factories produce iron, steel, chemical fertilizers, cotton yarn, textiles and clothing, cement, consumer electronics, appliances, automobiles, and paper products. The remaining one fourth of the workforce is employed in services, such as government and health care. HistoryArchaeologists have found evidence that human ancestors lived in what is now China at least 400,000 years ago. By about 2000 BC people had started to live together in settled groups and to farm the land. Eventually these groups formed communities and then dynasties, or royal families, to rule over the communities. First dynastiesThe earliest written records indicate that the first dynasty was the Shang, which ruled from about the 18th to the 12th century BC. The Shang had a highly developed society and used bronze to make weapons and tools. But the Shang did not rule over all the land that is now China. Their neighbors, the Zhou, took over their territory in about 1122 BC. The Zhou Dynasty, which lasted for almost 900 years, was a loose collection of individual states. One of those states, the Qin, finally unified China and established the first empire in 221 BC. The Qin leaders built roads, aqueducts, and canals that linked northern and southern provinces. They were also concerned about defending their territory against wandering tribes to the north. As a result they began to construct what has come to be known as the Great Wall of China. Han and Tang dynastiesThe Qin was replaced by the Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 220). During Han times, the Chinese distinguished themselves in making scientific discoveries, many of which were not known to Westerners until centuries later. The Chinese were most advanced in astronomy. They invented sundials and water clocks and divided the day equally into 12 periods. After the fall of the Han, China was a divided empire for several centuries. It was reunited under the short-lived Sui Dynasty (AD 581–618). The Tang Dynasty (AD 618–907) next ruled China. The Tang rulers expanded China's territory to include portions of Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia, and Tibet. At the same time they supported literary and artistic work of all kinds, leading to what the Chinese today regard as their country's finest creative period. The Tang Dynasty fell into decline in the late 9th century, and another period of disunity followed its collapse. Foreign invasionsThe next great dynasty was the Song Dynasty (960–1279), which restored peace and unity in the country. However, the Mongols, a tribal group led by Genghis Khan, began to attack China in 1211. Finally, in 1279, the Mongols conquered all of China, and the Song Dynasty ended. By that time Genghis Khan had died and his grandson, Kublai Khan, led the Mongols. When the Mongols took over China, it was the first time in history that foreign invaders controlled the Chinese empire. The Ming overthrew the Mongols in 1368. They were followed by another group of foreign invaders, the Manchus. The Qing Dynasty, established in 1644 by the Manchus, continued until the 20th century. It was China's last dynasty. 19th-century battlesIn the 19th century China began to face conflict with the West. The problems began with the first Opium War (1839–42). This war was a struggle with the British over the opium trade in China. The Chinese wished to halt the trade because many Chinese citizens were becoming addicted to the opium, which caused serious economic and social problems. For the British it was a very profitable trade. The war was also a battle for power between two civilizations. The British won the war as well as other battles. China also had disputes with France in 1870 and with Russia in 1879. It fought wars against France from 1884 to 1885 and against Japan from 1894 to 1895. Partly as a result of these wars, several foreign powers gained influence and control over parts of China during the 19th century. As a reaction against this influence and against poverty faced by peasants in the countryside, people in several places around the country began to rebel. The Boxer Rebellion at the end of the century was one of the most notable attempts to bring about reform. The Boxers wanted to rid the country of all foreigners, including the Manchus. Although the rebellion was not successful, it forced the government to make changes that in some ways improved conditions for the people, such as establishing modern schools and allowing students to study in other countries. Nationalist rebellionDespite these reforms, several groups continued their efforts to bring about a change in the government. They finally succeeded with a rebellion that began in 1911. The last Manchu emperor stepped down in 1912, bringing an end to China's 2,000-year-old imperial system. Sun Yat-sen and his Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) declared China a republic. Sun Yat-sen was the leader of the new republic for a very short time; he was soon replaced by Yüan Shih-k'ai. When Yüan tried to make himself emperor rebellion broke out again. When Yüan died, the country went through several years of uncertainty as leaders fought for control of China. Rise of CommunismThe Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1921. In 1924 the CCP and the Nationalists joined forces to try to take power and bring about reforms in the country. At first the alliance was enormously successful, and it helped to bring some unity to China. But, after conquering Shanghai, the Nationalists, led by Chiang Kai-shek, turned against the CCP and drove it into the countryside in 1927. The following year the Nationalists took control of China. In 1931 Japan invaded Manchuria, a region in northeastern China. Then in 1937 the Japanese invaded North China. They remained in those regions until the end of World War II. When Japan surrendered in 1945, a struggle for control of China broke out between the Nationalists and the Communists under Mao Zedong. In the late 1940s the Nationalist forces were defeated. They fled to the island of Taiwan, where they established a Chinese government in exile. It would continue to claim that it was the rightful government of China into the 21st century. On the mainland, however, the Communist government was in control of the country. On October 1, 1949, the Communists renamed the country. It became the People's Republic of China, and Mao Zedong was its leader. The Communists attempted many reforms, some of which were successful. Others were disastrous; these included the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. Great Leap ForwardThe goal of the Great Leap Forward was to modernize China's economy, industry, and technology. The plan was to move all of China's vast rural population into groups called communes. The communes would then work in either agriculture or small local industries to produce large amounts of food and products. The program was established quickly, however, and the people in charge were not expert enough to make the system work. Because of the failures of the Great Leap Forward, 20 million people died of starvation between 1958 and 1962. Cultural RevolutionIn 1966 Mao began the Cultural Revolution. Its goal was to keep the revolutionary spirit alive among China's young people. Instead, it led to chaos and violence throughout China. Schools and universities were shut down, and young people formed armed bands known as the Red Guards that attacked those who disagreed with Mao. Mao died in 1976, and the Cultural Revolution officially ended the following year. Recent issuesMao's successor, Deng Xiaoping, began to relax the government's tight hold on daily life. He made changes to the economy and allowed some freedom of speech. He also attempted to improve China's relations with other countries. The situation changed in 1989, however. In June of that year the government sent army troops to break up a pro-democracy demonstration in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. Many thousands of people had gathered in the square over the course of several weeks for a peaceful protest. The army attacked the protestors, killing hundreds. Many countries protested this and other instances of human rights abuses. One example is that of Tibet, which was an independent country before China invaded it in the 1950s. China eventually took control of Tibet, and the Tibetan leader, the Dalai Lama, fled to India. Over the following decades, many countries tried to persuade China to give Tibet its independence, but they were not successful. Although China disagreed with countries around the world on many issues, it still continued to seek improved relations with the United States and other nations. In 1997 the territory of Hong Kong was returned to China after a long period under the control of the British. In 1999 the Portuguese territory of Macau was returned to Chinese control as well. Population (2001 estimate), 1,274,915,000. |