To improve job conditions, workers sometimes band together to form unions, political parties, or both. By so doing they increase their strength to negotiate with employers and press government to change its policies: the voice of many is much louder than the voice of one. The Industrial Revolution transformed the way people earned a living. Beginning in the 1800s workers began organizing to bring about changes such as better pay, shorter working hours, and fair treatment by their employers. This marked the beginning of the world's labor movements—efforts aimed at establishing the rights of the worker. Labor in the United StatesRoots of the U.S. labor movementThe Industrial Revolution caused the economy of the United States to shift away from farming and handcrafted goods toward machine-powered industry. Factories began dotting the landscape, particularly in the heavily populated northeastern states. Businesses such as textile mills, printers, and shoe manufacturers required many laborers to run machinery. Whether skilled or unskilled, factory workers had little if any control over on-the-job circumstances. Men, women, and even children toiled long hours for low wages, often in dangerous conditions. With more and more immigrants arriving in the United States each day, factory owners and other business operators had a steady supply of laborers to choose from when hiring. The employer had all the power; the individual worker was at the employer's mercy. As early as 1768 American workers banded together to stand up to their employers. That year tailors in New York City stopped work to protest a cut in their pay. But the first signs of a lasting labor movement appeared in the 1800s. In 1827 the various craft workers of Philadelphia formed the Mechanics' Union of Trade Societies. Over the next decades citywide labor groups also formed in Boston, New York, Pittsburgh, and other major cities. The first nationwide union, the National Typographical Union, was created in 1852. It was soon followed by national unions of stonecutters, hat makers, carpenters, and other workers. Growth of unionsAfter the American Civil War ended in 1865, the U.S. economy entered a period of expansion. In such times of growth workers are in great demand. The late 1800s were a time of increased union activity, with many laborers joining together in groups to demand changes in the workplace as well as government reforms. The first major labor organization in the United States was the Knights of Labor. Founded in Philadelphia in 1869, the Knights included skilled and unskilled workers alike. The union pushed for an eight-hour workday, the end of child labor, and the public ownership of utility (electrical and gas) companies and railroads. The union grew quickly and by the 1880s was national in scope. But it was soon overshadowed by another organization—the American Federation of Labor (AFL). The AFL was founded in 1886 as an association of unions of skilled craft workers. The AFL grew steadily, reaching 4 million members in 1917. The unions of the AFL placed great emphasis on written collective agreements, or contracts between an employer and its union employees. Members were required to pay dues. These were used to set up insurance funds for workers and provide benefits during strikes, or work stoppages led by protesting workers. The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), called “the Wobblies,” took a different approach than the AFL. Founded in 1905, the IWW tried to organize workers of major industries into one big union. It also had a radical goal: the IWW wanted to overthrow the existing system and replace it with one completely controlled by workers. In other words, its aim was revolution. The tactics used by the Wobblies were also controversial. The IWW led several major strikes and engaged in acts of sabotage against (or damage to) employers. Many Americans feared such extreme activities, and the IWW disbanded during World War I. Employers believed unions were bad for business, and many tried to stop them. For example, some employers required new workers to sign a “yellow-dog” contract, promising not to join unions. Employers also used spies who would tell managers of any union activities among workers. Workers who were sympathetic to unions often lost their jobs. U.S. courts of law got involved in some disputes. Judges issued orders to end strikes they viewed as a threat to property or as a violation of antitrust laws (laws protecting free trade). Unions gain groundThe severe economic downturn of the Great Depression of the 1930s posed many hardships for Americans. But laws passed during the decade were good for workers and unions. The Norris–La Guardia Act of 1932 limited the use of courts in labor disputes and outlawed yellow-dog contracts. In 1935 Congress passed the National Labor Relations Act. It clearly established the right of workers to join a union. These laws allowed unions to grow. In 1936 the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) split off from the AFL. Leaders of the CIO wanted to organize workers, skilled and unskilled, in the steel, auto, and rubber industries. The CIO's efforts to unionize industrial workers moved quickly. The auto industry accepted unions after workers staged strikes in plants. Pro-union workers used similar tactics to organize other major industries. By the end of the 1930s union membership in the United States had risen to 8.5 million. This number represented about 30 percent of U.S. workers. During World War II U.S. unions agreed not to strike. Employers and employees worked together to produce military tanks, planes, and other equipment and supplies. The U.S. manufacturing effort played a critical role in the Allied victory in 1945. Meanwhile, union membership continued to grow. In the 1950s unions were troubled by charges of corruption. Some powerful union leaders were accused of misusing funds and of having ties to organized crime. Congress investigated the matter and, in response, passed the Landrum-Griffin Act in 1959 to prevent such wrongdoing in the future. To strengthen labor's position, the AFL and CIO merged in 1955. The new organization, the AFL-CIO, remains a leading force in U.S. politics. In the early 21st century the federation was made up of more than 60 unions, including the United Automobile Workers of America (UAW), the United Food and Commercial Workers (UFCW), and the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees (AFSCME). U.S. labor todayOver the last four decades of the 20th century the U.S. economy again experienced a shift. The number of manufacturing jobs dropped as big corporations set up production operations in other countries. But the number of service jobs, such as in the banking, insurance, and retail industries, rose. Unions tried to organize workers in these fields, but the results were mixed. By the start of the 21st century only about 16 million U.S. workers, or about 13 percent of the total workforce, belonged to unions. At times during the 1940s and 1950s union members had accounted for as much as 35 percent of the total workforce. Nevertheless, unions made important gains for U.S. workers. Their efforts helped bring about standards for work hours, paid time off, and other benefits such as health insurance. Workers had made their voices heard. Western EuropeThe Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and early labor groups developed there as well. At first, employers were opposed to the formation of unions. From 1799 to 1824 labor unions were banned in Great Britain under laws called the Combination Acts. Even after these laws were removed, it was still difficult for unions to function effectively. In 1834, for example, six laborers from the English village of Tolpuddle (known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs) were sentenced to be transported to a penal colony in Australia for seven years for organizing union activities. It was only following acts of Parliament in 1871 and 1875 that unions achieved full legal rights in Britain. In Britain and in countries such as France, Germany, and Italy on the European continent, the labor movement took a different turn than in the United States. In these countries labor unions usually combined with socialist political parties to push for broad social reforms. Because of the labor movement, European workers gained the right to vote, won free public education, and received the full rights of citizenship. Laws were passed to increase wages, limit working hours, and improve working conditions. Following World War II labor unions in western Europe grew rapidly. Union membership has outpaced that of the United States, meaning that a greater percentage of European workers belong to unions than do U.S. workers. Most of Europe's unions have remained tied to political parties. European laborers have won such benefits as social security, health insurance systems, and annual vacations of four to six weeks. Eastern EuropeLabor unions developed in Russia and other parts of eastern Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As in western Europe, the unions were connected to socialist political parties. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russia came under the control of a Communist government as part of the newly formed Soviet Union. (Communism is a form of socialism.) In the Soviet Union the government owned and controlled almost all industries. (In the United States and in much of the rest of the world today, industry is owned by private interests, not by the government.) Labor unions in the Soviet Union were linked very closely to the ruling Communist Party. They were involved mostly in helping to increase industrial production rather than in helping their members to get large pay rises and other benefits. After World War II the Soviet Union forced the other countries of eastern Europe to become Communist as well. As in the Soviet Union, the unions in these countries were controlled by the Communist government. In the late 1980s and early 1990s the Communist governments of the Soviet Union and its eastern European neighbors collapsed. One major result was a reduction in government control of the economies of these countries. Labor unions reorganized under the new political system and became more independent. But laws dating back to the Soviet era sometimes held back efforts to protect the rights of workers. Developing countriesIn many countries with developing economies, the first labor unions were formed by railroad workers, dockers, and miners by the early 20th century. For the most part, however, an ongoing labor movement did not get under way in these countries until after World War II. In Asia and Africa, labor movements were often tied to the struggle for independence from European colonial powers. In India, for example, workers played a role in the effort to win freedom from British control. The International Labor Organization, an agency of the United Nations, protected new union movements in many developing countries. Government instability, however, threatened the success of long-term efforts to improve the situation of workers in some of these places. |