During the period known as the Middle Ages the people of Europe did not live in nations with central governments. Instead they lived in smaller local units and established relationships within those units that allowed them to live in relative peace. This social system, which consisted of a series of rights and duties, is sometimes known as feudalism.

Background

For 500 years the Roman Empire ruled over much of Europe. In the 5th century AD invaders brought about the end of part of the empire, and in its place they created many smaller kingdoms. The rulers of these kingdoms borrowed some Roman ideas of government and adopted the Christian religion of the Romans. They also were often at war with other peoples and kings. These kings were aided in their struggles by loyal warriors. It is sometimes said that the relationship of the kings and warriors was one of the roots of later feudalism.

The greatest of the kings of the early Middle Ages was Charlemagne. He tried to build an empire based on the Roman model. It was also built on his Christian beliefs. As king and emperor, Charlemagne made his subjects swear oaths of loyalty to bind them more closely to the king and his government. Swearing an oath of loyalty is often seen as one of the rituals of feudalism. Charlemagne's rule is sometimes seen as an important step in the development of feudalism. He is also important because none of his successors were as great a ruler as he was. He died in 814, and his empire broke apart by the end of the 9th century.

The real beginnings of feudalism are said to have occurred after the breakup of Charlemagne's empire and the order he created. In the 10th and 11th centuries Europe faced invasions by Vikings and other peoples, and the social order of Charlemagne finally collapsed. In its place feudal structures were created to provide order and protection. After the year 1000 new feudal institutions appeared. Local warlords built castles and were supported by personal warriors, or knights.

Structure

The warlords and knights established a bond that was celebrated in a great ceremony. The knight, also called a vassal, received a piece of land called a fief from the warlord and in exchange owed the lord military service. The vassals also owed money payments and service at the lord's court and castle. The lords and vassals held a special place in society over the majority of the population, who were known as peasants. They ruled over the peasants and administered law and justice. Eventually the warlords themselves became vassals of the king. Kings used the exchange of fiefs and homage to increase their power, which helped create a strong monarchy.

The peasants did the real work in the Middle Ages. They farmed and produced the food and wealth to support the lords and vassals. The peasants, called serfs, lived in a village near the lord's castle. They were bound to the land and could not leave. They owed the lord labor service and payments of food. They farmed the lord's fields and also small parcels of their own fields. The serfs worked hard for the lords and received military protection from the lords.

Decline of feudalism

Feudalism grew up in times of violence and disorder. Over the centuries it succeeded in bringing safety. The order that feudalism brought helped improve trade and the economy. People became more wealthy, and money was used more frequently. Payments of money to vassals began to replace payments in land. Vassals too paid their lords money instead of military service. The lords would use this money to hire professional soldiers.

Feudal laws were written down in the 12th and 13th centuries. By the time the laws were written, however, feudalism was becoming less important in society. New forms of government were created that were not based on the fief. By the 14th century feudalism had declined almost completely. It was replaced by the strong monarchies that it had helped create.

In some cases serfs began to pay money rents as well, though they continued to owe certain duties to the lords. In France the peasants continued to owe duties to the great landowners for several hundred years after the end of the feudalism. It was not until the French Revolution that they became completely free. In Germany most of the peasants became free in the early part of the 19th century, but in central Europe the great landowners kept their privileges and the peasants remained serfs until the middle of the 19th century. In Russia the serfs were not officially granted their freedom until 1861.