(1735–1826). Before serving as the second president of the United States, John Adams was the country's first vice president. Adams passionately supported the cause of American independence from Great Britain. His legal skills and reputation for integrity led to his appointment as a diplomat during and after the American Revolution. His efforts earned him a prominent place among the founders of the new republic. Early lifeJohn Adams was born in Braintree (now Quincy), Massachusetts, on October 30, 1735. His father was a farmer and a community leader. He encouraged John to pursue a career in the ministry. After graduating from Harvard College in 1755, however, Adams chose to become a lawyer. He returned to Braintree in 1758 and began practicing law. In 1764 Adams married Abigail Smith, a minister's daughter. They had four children—Abigail, John Quincy, Charles, and Thomas. Revolutionary eraAdams became a leader in the resistance movement against British policy in the colonies. In 1765 he argued against the Stamp Act. This law required all publications and legal documents to bear a stamp purchased from the British government. As a result of strong colonial opposition, Britain repealed the law in 1766. In 1770 Adams defended British soldiers who had fired on a rioting Boston mob, resulting in the deaths of five Bostonians. This incident, which became known as the Boston Massacre, did much to arouse anti-British feelings in the New England colonies especially. Despite his personal hostility toward the British, Adams insisted on upholding the British soldiers' legal rights. His decision made him unpopular for a time among other colonists. In 1774 Adams was elected to serve in the Continental Congress. Thereafter he was a leading advocate of independence from Britain. He nominated George Washington to serve as commander of the Continental Army, the military force of the colonies during the American Revolution. In 1776 Adams chose Thomas Jefferson to draft the Declaration of Independence. Later that year Adams joined his fellow delegates in signing the document. Foreign serviceIn 1777 Adams became a diplomat. He sailed for Paris in early 1778 to join Benjamin Franklin in negotiations aimed at strengthening America's ties with France. When he arrived in Paris, however, he learned that a treaty with France had already been signed. Adams returned home in 1779 and was elected to serve at the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention. There he drafted the document that became the Massachusetts constitution of 1780. It became the model for other state constitutions and a major influence on the United States Constitution. Adams then rejoined Franklin in Paris to negotiate a treaty to end the war with Britain. The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, brought peace and made the United States an independent nation. In 1785 Adams was named the first ambassador of the United States to Britain. Vice presidencyAdams returned to the United States in 1788. The next year he finished second to George Washington in the presidential election. Under the system in place at the time, Washington became president and Adams became vice president. In 1792 the two men were reelected. Political parties began to emerge during Washington's presidency. Adams and Alexander Hamilton led the Federalist party, which supported a strong central government. They opposed Thomas Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican party, which believed that the states should have more power. PresidencyAdams won a narrow victory over Jefferson in the presidential election of 1796. The two political opponents therefore became president and vice president. Although Adams was widely recognized as honest and capable, he was never popular. He was often vain and blunt. He was charged with wanting to limit power to the “rich, the well-born, and the able.” Adams had rivals even within his own party, notably Hamilton. Conflict with FranceA defining event of Adams' presidency was a dispute between the United States and France that almost led to war. The dispute had begun several years earlier. At the time France was at war with Britain. The French expected the United States to support them in the war. Instead, the United States signed a treaty with Britain in 1794. In response, the French began seizing U.S. ships. The dispute led to a split within the Federalist party. Many party members, led by Hamilton, called for war with France. Adams wanted to keep peace with France and sent three agents to Paris in 1798 to settle the dispute. They were met by three French agents, whom the Americans referred to by the code names of X, Y, and Z. These men demanded bribes before negotiations could begin, angering the United States. Adams did not declare war, however. Instead, against the wishes of his own party, he sent another peace delegation to France. A treaty was signed in 1800. The incident was called the XYZ affair. Alien and Sedition ActsAdams faced much criticism for the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. These harsh laws made it more difficult for new immigrants to become citizens and punished critics of the government. The Federalist majority in Congress passed the laws over Adams' objections. Despite his personal opposition, Adams took most of the blame for the unpopular legislation. Defeat and retirementAdams faced Jefferson again in the presidential election of 1800. Jefferson and Aaron Burr each received 73 electoral votes to Adams' 65. The presidency and vice presidency therefore went to Jefferson and Burr. In retirement Adams renewed his friendship with Jefferson. The two men died within hours of each other on July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. |