Colonial Background

Before the creation of the Dominion of Canada, British North America was a vast region of many fragments. The most important of these was the province of Canada, comprising Canada East (now Quebec) and Canada West (now Ontario). To the east were Newfoundland and the Maritime Provinces—New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. On the Pacific coast was British Columbia. The Hudson's Bay Company governed most of the interior.

Transportation between the various sections was extremely poor. The vast interior would probably be lost unless it could be joined to a united Canada. The well-populated areas in most of the provinces were closer to the United States than to one another. In 1849, in fact, there was a movement in Canada East to join the United States. Britain's free-trade policy, adopted in 1846, was seriously affecting the economy of the colonies. The American Civil War in 1861–65 also raised fears that political and economic instability would spread north. Many of those in the Canadian colonies believed that the best way to safeguard their trade and commerce was through union.

The Canadian provincial government faced a crisis, chiefly the result of hostility between the French-speaking Roman Catholics of Canada East and the English-speaking Protestants of Canada West. No political party could gain a working majority. In an effort to break the stalemate, Liberal leader George Brown and his political foes, Conservative leader John A. Macdonald and Georges-Étienne Cartier, agreed to form a compromise government. The result was the Great Coalition of 1864. A major objective of the coalition government was the creation of a federal union of all the provinces.

Three Historic Conferences

On Sept. 1, 1864, leaders of the three Maritime Provinces gathered in Charlottetown, P.E.I., to discuss the formation of a Maritime Union. Just before the meeting opened, a delegation of eight visitors—including Macdonald, Brown, and Cartier—arrived from Canada. They outlined their plan for a federation of all the provinces. The conference adjourned on September 7 after arrangements were made to continue the discussions in Quebec.

The Quebec Conference opened on Oct. 10, 1864, and was attended by 33 delegates from all the provinces. During the 17-day meeting the delegates approved the Seventy-two Resolutions that were to form the basis of the British North America Act.

The London Conference was held in England in December 1866 to complete the negotiations for confederation and to secure Britain's approval. Only six delegates from Canada and five each from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were present. Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland had withdrawn from the talks. With virtually no opposition from Parliament, the British North America Act—embodying the Quebec Resolutions—was passed the following March. On July 1, 1867, the Dominion of Canada was proclaimed as a parliamentary state with federal and provincial governments. The Dominion remained subject to the British crown but as a self-governing state. The British North America Act served as the constitution of Canada for 115 years.

In 1867 the Dominion consisted of four provinces—Canada West (renamed Ontario), Canada East (renamed Quebec), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. Two years later the Northwest Territories were acquired. Manitoba joined the confederation in 1870; British Columbia in 1871; Prince Edward Island in 1873; and Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1905. Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador), the 10th province, entered the Dominion in 1949. Part of the Northwest Territories was given separate territorial status as the Yukon Territory in 1898, and another section became the new territory of Nunavut in 1999. Nunavut encompasses the traditional lands of the Inuit, the indigenous peoples of northern Canada, and serves as a homeland for those peoples.

The “Big Seven”

Macdonald, Sir John Alexander (1815–91). Macdonald was the dominant figure in the move toward Canadian confederation. Born in Glasgow, Scotland, he was brought to Upper Canada (Canada West) in 1820. He practiced law and served some 20 years in the provincial Assembly. Macdonald befriended the French Canadians and helped form the Conservative (then called the Liberal-Conservative) party. Opposing him were the Liberals, led by Brown.

Between 1857 and 1862 Macdonald served for a time as provincial prime minister and held two cabinet posts. When a political deadlock developed in 1864, he worked with Brown to form the Great Coalition, which sought Canadian union as its major goal.

After confederation, Macdonald became the Dominion's first prime minister, serving from 1867 to 1873 and again from 1878 until his death in 1891. One of his great aims was to extend the Dominion from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The realization of this objective and the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway were in no small measure due to his efforts (see Macdonald, John A.).

Brown, George (1818–80). A spokesman for the English-speaking Protestants of Canada West, Brown was born in Alloa, Scotland. He migrated to the United States in 1838 and later moved to Toronto, where he founded the politically influential newspaper The Globe. Elected to the provincial Assembly in 1851, Brown opposed equal representation for Canada East and the more populous Canada West. Instead, he urged representation based on population.

Brown was a reformer and a speaker of great ability. He was an early advocate of Canadian union. As a member of the Great Coalition, he played important roles in the two 1864 conferences but resigned from the government the following year. Brown was appointed to the Dominion Senate in 1873. He rarely made speeches but remained a strong political power. He died in 1880 after being shot by a disgruntled former employee of The Globe.

Cartier, Sir Georges-Étienne (1814–73). As a leader of the French Canadians, Cartier played the major role in persuading Canada East to participate in the Great Coalition and to accept federation proposals. Cartier was born in St-Antoine, Lower Canada (Canada East). He fought in a rebellion against British rule in 1837 and was forced to flee to the United States. After his return in 1838 he practiced law and served many years in the provincial Assembly. He was premier of the province of Canada from 1858 to 1862. After confederation, he served as the Dominion's minister of militia.

Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch (1817–93). Galt was a leader of the English-speaking minority in Canada East, a railroad promoter, and a strong advocate of Canadian union. Born in London, England, he was the youngest son of Scottish novelist John Galt. In 1835 he moved to Sherbrooke, east of Montreal, where he worked for a land company.

Galt served intermittently as a member of the Canada provincial Assembly from 1849 to 1866 and was provincial finance minister in 1858–62 and 1864–66. After confederation he was a member of the Dominion Parliament until 1872 and served briefly as finance minister. He was the first Canadian high commissioner to London (1880–83).

McGee, Thomas D'Arcy (1825–68). A poet, orator, and journalist, McGee was born in Carlingford, County Louth, Ireland. In 1842 he emigrated to Boston, Mass., where he became editor of the Pilot, a religious weekly. He returned to Ireland to join the 1848 rebellion against Britain but was forced to flee to the United States. While in the United States he founded several newspapers. In 1857 he established the New Era in Montreal.

McGee served in the provincial Assembly in 1858–67. A member of the Great Coalition, he was an eloquent speaker in support of Canadian union. After confederation he was elected to the Dominion House of Commons in 1867. Opposed to Irish Republicanism, he was assassinated presumably by a Fenian (an Irish nationalist) in Canada.

Tilley, Sir Samuel Leonard (1818–96). Born in Gagetown, N.B., Tilley was in business several years before his election to the provincial Assembly in 1850. He served intermittently in the Assembly until 1865, the last four years as prime minister. After confederation Tilley was elected to the Dominion House of Commons and held several Cabinet posts. He was lieutenant governor of New Brunswick in 1873–78 and 1885–93.

Tupper, Sir Charles (1821–1915). A strong advocate of Canadian union, Tupper was born in Amherst, N.S. A practicing physician, he later served in the provincial Assembly from 1855 to 1867. He was premier of Nova Scotia in 1864–67.

After confederation Tupper served in the Dominion House of Commons from 1867 to 1884 and held a number of Cabinet posts. Except for a brief interval, he was high commissioner for Canada in London from 1883 to 1896. In 1896 he became Dominion secretary of state, then served briefly as Canada's prime minister. Tupper was the last survivor of the Fathers of Confederation. He published Recollections of Sixty Years in 1914 (see Tupper, Charles).

Other Fathers of Confederation

Archibald, Sir Adams George (1814–92). The Dominion's first secretary of state, Archibald was born in Truro, N.S. A lawyer, he sat in the provincial Assembly in 1851–67. He was lieutenant governor of Nova Scotia in 1873–83.

Campbell, Sir Alexander (1822–92). Born in Hedon, England, Campbell was brought to Canada in 1823. A law partner of John A. Macdonald, he served in the Canada provincial Legislative Council. After confederation he served in the Dominion Senate and held several Cabinet posts.

Carter, Sir Frederick Bowker Terrington (1819–1900). Born in St. John's, Newf., Carter sat in the provincial Assembly from 1855 to 1878. He was Newfoundland's prime minister in 1865–69 and 1874–78. He became a judge on Newfoundland's Supreme Court in 1878 and chief justice in 1880.

Chandler, Edward Barron (1800–1880). Chandler was born in Amherst, N.S. He moved to New Brunswick to study law and became involved in the political life of the province. He served in the provincial Assembly in 1827–36 and on the Executive Council in 1844–58. He was lieutenant governor of the province in 1878–80.

Chapais, Jean-Charles (1811–85). A merchant, Chapais was born in Rivière-Ouelle, Lower Canada. He served in the Canada provincial Assembly from 1851 to 1867. After confederation he sat in the Dominion Senate and served in the Cabinet.

Cockburn, James (1819–83). Born in Berwick-on-Tweed, England, Cockburn came to Canada in 1832 and later practiced law in Cobourg, Canada West. He served in the Canada provincial Assembly in 1861–67 and in the Canadian House of Commons in 1867–74 and 1878–81. He is distinguished for being the first speaker of the House of Commons.

Coles, George (1810–75). Born on Prince Edward Island, Coles was a businessman for many years. He served in the provincial Assembly, 1842–68.

Dickey, Robert Barry (1811–1903). Dickey was born in Amherst, N.S. A lawyer, he served in Nova Scotia's Legislative Council in 1858–67. At first opposed to the Quebec Resolutions, he supported confederation in 1866. After 1867 he played a minor role in the Dominion Senate.

Fisher, Charles (1808–80). Fisher was New Brunswick's prime minister in 1851–56 and 1857–61. He was born in Fredericton, N.B. He served in the provincial Assembly in 1837–68. From 1868 until his death he was a judge on the New Brunswick Supreme Court.

Gray, John Hamilton (1812–87). Gray was prime minister of Prince Edward Island in 1863–65. Born in the province, he served many years in the British army. Elected to the provincial Assembly in 1858, he was reelected in 1863. When the Prince Edward Island legislature rejected the Quebec Resolutions, Gray returned to military duty.

Gray, John Hamilton (1814–89). A New Brunswick lawyer, Gray served in the provincial Assembly in 1850–67. He was born in St. George's, Bermuda. He served in the Dominion House of Commons beginning in 1867 but resigned in 1872 to become a judge on the British Columbia Supreme Court.

Haviland, Thomas Heath (1822–95). Born in Charlottetown, P.E.I., Haviland was a lawyer and served in the provincial Assembly from 1847 to 1870. After Prince Edward Island joined the confederation, he sat in the Dominion Senate. He was lieutenant governor of his province in 1879–84.

Henry, William Alexander (1816–88). Born in Halifax, N.S., Henry was a lawyer and served in the provincial Assembly in 1841–67. As a result of his work for confederation, he lost his seat in the Assembly in 1867. He served as a judge on the Canadian Supreme Court from 1875 until his death.

Howland, Sir William Pearce (1811–1907). A Toronto businessman, Howland served in the Canada provincial Assembly in 1857–67. Born in Pawling, N.Y., he moved to Canada in 1830. He was a Dominion Cabinet member in 1867–68 and Ontario's lieutenant governor in 1868–73.

Johnson, John Mercer (1818–68). A New Brunswick lawyer, Johnson was born in Liverpool, England, but moved to Canada at an early age. He served in the provincial Assembly after 1850 and held several cabinet posts. He served in the Dominion Parliament from 1867 until his death.

Langevin, Sir Hector-Louis (1826–1906). Born in Quebec City, Langevin, a lawyer, served in the Canada provincial Assembly in 1857–67, actively supporting the Great Coalition. He was solicitor general for Lower Canada 1864–66. He served in Parliament in 1867–96 and held several Cabinet posts.

McCully, Jonathan (1809–77). A journalist and lawyer, McCully was born in Cumberland County, N.S. He was named to the provincial Legislative Council in 1847. After confederation he served in the Dominion Senate. In 1870–77 he was a judge on the Nova Scotia Supreme Court.

Macdonald, Andrew Archibald (1829–1912). Macdonald was born in Three Rivers, P.E.I. He served in the provincial Assembly in 1853–58, on the Executive Council in 1867–72, and as lieutenant governor of the province in 1884–89. He served in the Dominion Senate from 1891 until his death.

McDougall, William (1822–1905). A leader of the radical wing of the Reform party and later a Liberal, McDougall was an associate of George Brown. A lawyer, he was born near York (Toronto), Upper Canada. Between 1858 and 1882 he served intermittently in both the provincial Assembly and the Dominion House of Commons.

Mitchell, Peter (1824–99). A lawyer, Mitchell was prime minister of New Brunswick in 1866–67. Born in Newcastle, N.B., he served in the provincial Assembly in 1856–60 and on the Executive Council in 1860–67. After confederation he sat in both houses of the Dominion Parliament.

Mowat, Sir Oliver (1820–1903). Mowat was premier of Ontario from 1872 to 1896. Born in Kingston, Upper Canada, he practiced law and served in the provincial Assembly for several years. Named to the Dominion Senate in 1896, he resigned a year later to become lieutenant governor of Ontario.

Palmer, Edward (1809–89). A jurist, Palmer was born in Charlottetown, P.E.I. He was a member of the provincial Assembly in 1835–60 and of the Legislative Council in 1860–73. Palmer was chief justice on the island's Supreme Court in 1874–89.

Pope, William Henry (1825–79). Born in Bedeque, P.E.I., Pope served in the provincial legislature in 1863–73. He was a county court judge from 1873 until his death.

Ritchie, John William (1808–90). A judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, Ritchie was born in Annapolis, N.S. He served on the provincial Legislative Council as solicitor general in 1864–67 and in the Dominion Senate in 1867–70.

Shea, Sir Ambrose (1815–1905). A longtime member of Newfoundland's Assembly, Shea was born in St. John's, Newf. He was colonial secretary in 1865–69 and governor of the Bahamas in 1887–95.

Steeves, William Henry (1814–73). Born in Hillsborough, N.B., Steeves was a businessman and a member of the provincial Assembly in 1846–51. He served on the Executive Council in 1857–65. After confederation he sat in the Dominion Senate.

Taché, Sir Étienne-Paschal (1795–1865). Taché was joint premier of the province of Canada in 1856–57 and 1864–65. Born in St-Thomas, Lower Canada, he served for many years in the provincial Assembly and on the Legislative Council. Though a joint premier, he was titular head of the government and presided at the Quebec Conference. He was the only “father” who did not live to see confederation.

Whelan, Edward (1824–67). A journalist, Whelan was born in County Mayo, Ireland. He came to Nova Scotia as a boy and in 1847 became publisher of the Examiner in Charlottetown, P.E.I. Whelan was named to the provincial Executive Council in 1851 and to the Legislative Council in 1858.

Wilmot, Robert Duncan (1809–91). Wilmot was lieutenant governor of New Brunswick in 1880–85. Born in Fredericton, N.B., he served in the provincial Assembly in 1846–61 and in the Dominion Senate in 1867–80.