The Land

About 80 percent of the people of Bolivia live in the western two fifths of the country. Here the Andes Mountains extend from north to south in two lofty parallel ranges, the Cordillera Occidental to the west and the Cordillera Real (Oriental) to the east. Snow-clad peaks rise more than 21,000 feet (6,350 meters) in the western range blocking easy access to the Pacific Ocean, and several volcanoes are still active. The eastern range is more broken, providing access to the montaña, or eastern foothills, and to the lowlands.

Between the cordilleras stretches the altiplano, or high plain, with an average altitude of about 13,000 feet (4,000 meters). It is about 500 miles (800 kilometers) long and 40 to 60 miles (65 to 100 kilometers) wide and is the largest plateau in the Andes system. Across the northwestern boundary of Bolivia and Peru lies Lake Titicaca. At 12,500 feet (3,810 meters), it is the highest large body of navigable water in the world with regular steamer service. Its fresh water drains through the Río Desaguadero to Lake Poopó, where much of it evaporates, causing that lake to be salty. The northern and eastern Andean slopes (montaña region) are cut with broad, fertile, cultivated valleys known as the yungas.

The country's tropical and semitropical lowlands (Oriente), which make up about 60 percent of its area, form a broad crescent around the Andes. The northeastern plains are drained through branches of the Amazon River, while the southern plains, part of the Gran Chaco, drain southeasterly toward the Atlantic through the Paraguay-Paraná River system.

Climate and Vegetation

Bolivia lies wholly within the tropics, but its climate varies considerably with altitude. The high peaks are cold enough to remain covered with snow and ice the year around, and the altiplano and adjoining slopes—from 10,000 to 14,000 feet (3,000 to 4,200 meters)—are cool, with an average annual temperature of 50° F (10° C). The western half of the altiplano has a dry climate, while its eastern half, influenced by Lake Titicaca, is more humid. The yungas grow warmer as they slope toward the plain, and the lowlands have tropical heat with a mean annual temperature of 77° F (25° C).

The tropical northeastern plains, like the rest of the Amazon Basin, receive abundant rains and are covered with dense rain forest (see Amazon River). Not many people live in this area because of insect pests, tropical diseases, and the generally poor soils. However, a few Indians do exist there by hunting and raising cassava and other plants in small clearings. These natives also gather wild rubber, Brazil nuts, and cinchona bark.

To the southeast is the Gran Chaco, a lowland region that receives seasonal rain. Its grasslands, called savannas, offer abundant pasture for cattle in the wet season. However, the livestock may suffer in the dry season when pastures wither and streams and water holes disappear. Although underground water is available for irrigation, there are only limited transportation facilities to take crops to market.

The yunga region, on the other hand, is well watered, and its cloud-filled valleys yield a variety of crops. The lowest, hottest levels produce sugarcane, vanilla, and bananas and other tropical fruit. Slightly higher up the slopes farmers raise coffee, cacao, and coca. Between 4,000 and 8,000 feet (1,200 and 2,400 meters), corn (maize), alfalfa, and temperate-climate fruits flourish, while still higher valleys and basins produce mainly wheat, rye, and oats. To be profitable, products must earn enough money to cover the cost of their transportation—sometimes by packtrain—to markets in the mining camps or cities. These products include chocolate, coffee, brandy made from sugarcane, coca leaves, and chicha, a beer usually made from corn (maize) and other grain.

The high ridges of the Cordillera Real block the rain-bearing winds from the east, and so the altiplano and the Cordillera Occidental receive little moisture. Moreover, they are drier in the south than in the north, and due to drought and cold temperatures have no trees. Natural growth is mainly the tough bunchgrass called ichu, the tola bush, llareta moss, and reeds from the shallow waters of lakes.

The People

More than half of the Bolivians are Indians, mainly of Quechua and Aymara language stocks. There are also about 50 tribes of forest Indians. The mestizos, of mixed Indian and white heritage, make up almost two fifths, while the remainder are of European descent, mainly Spanish. The vast majority of the population is Roman Catholic.

Most of the Indians live on the bleak altiplano and on the brown, rocky slopes and eastern valley pockets above it. Others toil in the mines or do manual labor in the cities. Almost 40 percent of the work force makes a living by farming. This is difficult to do since there are few places on Earth where people farm in so high, cold, and dry a region. Yet, centuries ago the highland Indians of Peru and Bolivia learned how to make a living there. They domesticated a highland animal—the llama—to supply meat, milk, hides, fuel, and wool. They also developed hardy food plants such as the potato, a staple in their diet, and the highland grain crops, quinoa and canagua. Irrigation canals brought water to their fields.

Many Indian farmers still employ traditional agricultural methods. Often they use a foot plow to break up the soil, or they may drive oxen hitched to a wooden plow tipped with steel. During the planting of crops the farmer is followed by his wife, who drops the seed. Children bring up the rear, adding fertilizer and covering the seed.

At harvesttime, in May or June, the family cuts the tough quinoa stalks with a sickle, flails the plant to thresh out the seeds, and tosses the seeds in the air to winnow out the husks. The women grind the seeds and make bread or gruel from the resulting flour.

Another popular food is chuño, made from the potato. Spread on the grass in the early winter, the potatoes freeze at night and thaw in the daytime until they become soggy. Then members of the family tramp them to squeeze out moisture and remove part of the peel. Again, the potatoes lie in the sun and dry. They become small, hard pellets that will keep without spoiling for months—even years. The Indians use them in a stew with llama meat or mutton. In the spring quinoa leaves are added to the stew.

In this treeless land the Indians make small, windowless huts of stone and adobe clay with thatched grass or reed roofs. For fuel they use tola sticks, llareta, and llama dung. The hut is cold and gloomy, and at night the people wrap themselves in a llama skin and may sleep on the earthen floor.

Colorful clothing brightens the drab landscape. The men wear handwoven striped ponchos over shirt and pants and a knitted wool helmet, called a lluchu, which has flaps to keep their ears warm. Sometimes they set a felt hat over the helmet. The women also wear felt hats, and their full skirts are dyed in brilliant shades of orange, purple, red, and blue. Frequently, they wear a shawl for warmth and for carrying their babies on their backs. Many go barefoot.

About 20 percent of Bolivians are illiterate. In recent years special efforts have been made to bring schools to the Indians and to other rural people. Bolivia has universities in Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, Potosí, Santa Cruz, Sucre, Tarija, and Trinidad. Spanish, Quechua, and Aymara are the official languages.

Population Growth and Cities

As in many countries of Latin America, population is growing rapidly, more than 2.5 percent a year. If this growth continues, the population will double in less than 30 years. It is projected that there will be almost 9 million Bolivians by the year 2000. Bolivia faces another population problem: It has the highest infant death rate in Latin America—about 80 children die out of every 1,000 born.

Although Bolivia's population is growing rapidly, not all places within the country are growing at the same rate. Again as is true in most of Latin America, the population of the cities is increasing much faster than that of the rural areas. For example, La Paz's population is increasing at a yearly rate of 3 percent; if this continues, the city will have almost one million people within the next 20 years. A large part of this increase is due to people leaving their farms for large towns and cities.

High rates of growth create many problems in the cities. La Paz is a good example. There are not enough jobs in the city. Housing is inadequate. The drinking water is poor as are public transportation and utilities. There is no sewage disposal system, and automobile exhaust fumes pollute the air.

La Paz is the country's largest city and administrative capital, with a population of 711,036 (1992 estimate). Most government functions are carried out there (see La Paz, Bolivia). Sucre, the official capital, is the seat of the judiciary.

La Paz is on the altiplano, as is Oruro, a tin center. Most other cities and the high, bleak mining camps are in the Cordillera Real. Cochabamba and Sucre lie in fertile basins. Potosí, one of the highest towns in the world, is famous for its mineral wealth.

Transportation has been one of Bolivia's greatest problems. There are rail links with Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Peru. The Santa Cruz-Cochabamba highway, finished in 1954, closed the last gap in a Pacific-to-Atlantic rail-and-highway route. But, although international airlines connect La Paz with cities in North and South America and in Europe, there are many parts of Bolivia that still lack easy access to the rest of the nation.

Industries

Mining is Bolivia's leading industry, with about 70 percent of the nation's export income normally coming from minerals. The main mining area is in the Cordillera Real from Oruro to Potosí. Zinc is the country's chief mineral, and tin, lead, silver, tungsten, copper, antimony, bismuth, and gold are also mined for export. There are oil and natural gas fields in the Camiri-Santa Cruz area. Production meets domestic needs, and some oil is exported. A natural gas pipeline extends from Santa Cruz to Buenos Aires, Argentina, and an oil pipeline extends from Sica Sica to the Chilean port of Arica. Another natural gas pipeline is being constructed.

Bolivia has few factories. Supplies of raw materials, fuel, and trained workers and the capacity of the transportation system are inadequate for industrial development. The factories that there are, however, produce such goods as textiles, cement, dairy products, ceramics and plastics, and refined sugar.

History and Government

The richly carved monuments and stone walls of a ruined city at Tiahuanaco in the Titicaca Basin indicate that an advanced people lived in Bolivia perhaps 1,000 years ago. When the Spaniards invaded the area in the early 16th century, it was part of the powerful Inca Empire (see Incas). After conquering the Indians in 1538 the Spaniards governed the region, first under the viceroyalty of Peru and later under that of Buenos Aires.

Led by Gen. Antonio José de Sucre, the Bolivians won their independence in 1825 and named the new republic after Simón Bolívar, who drafted its first constitution. In the War of the Pacific, which lasted from 1879 to 1884, Bolivia lost its Pacific coast. In the final Chaco War, from 1932 to 1935, Bolivia lost most of the disputed Chaco region. (See also Pacific, War of the; Chaco War.)

A social-reform party seized power by revolution in 1952 and nationalized the country's largest tin mines and the railroads, initiated land reforms, and gave all adults the right to vote. During the 1950s Bolivia's economy suffered severely.

In 1964 a military junta ousted the social-reform government, introduced new economic reforms, and welcomed foreign investors. However, it and a subsequent government were overthrown by coups in September 1969 and in October 1970, respectively. A leftist regime fell during a coup in August 1971, and Col. Hugo Banzer Suárez assumed the presidency. He ruled until July 1978, when elections were held. When the results of these elections were voided, the leading candidate took control under a state of siege; a junta overthrew him in November.

Because no candidate won a majority in the 1979 election, an interim president was named. In November a military coup overthrew the civilian government. The next interim president, Lydia Gueiler Tejada, was ousted in July 1980 by a rightist junta headed by Gen. Luis García Meza. García Meza resigned in August 1981. Strikes and economic crises continued throughout the decade.

The National Congress, which had been suspended in 1980, was recalled in October 1982. It confirmed the 1980 presidential victory of Hernán Siles Zuazo. Victor Paz Estenssoro became president in 1985 for the fourth time. It was the first democratic transfer of power in 25 years. In the May 1989 presidential election, none of the nine candidates won a majority. The Congress chose Jaime Paz Zamora as president. When another indecisive election occurred in 1993, Congress selected Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada as president. Lozada began a program of free-market reforms that brought Bolivia's hyperinflation under control and increased the country's economic growth rate. The privatization of many state-owned industries prompted widespread unrest and a wave of labor strikes in the mid-1990s.