Land

The next region to the south is the Pampa, a low, flat plain interrupted only by low hills or sierras. Over millions of years the Pampa has been covered by a fertile wind-borne soil known as loess, and by waterborne alluvium eroded from the Andes. The pampas, or plains, are the homeland of the famous Argentine gaucho, or cowboy.

South of the Colorado River is Patagonia, the largest region of Argentina. It extends from the Pampa to Tierra del Fuego and was named in 1520 by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, while sailing for Spain, on his trip around the world. The landscape is dominated by the Andes in the west and plateaus that stretch eastward to the Atlantic, forming cliffs along much of the shoreline. The climate is dry and windy.

Climate, Soil, and Vegetation

The climate of Argentina is marked by seasonal change characteristic of the temperate middle latitudes. In Argentina, because it is in the Southern Hemisphere, the seasons are reversed from those in North America, winter occurring during June, July, and August and summer extending from January through March. Because most of Argentina is close to the Atlantic Ocean, seasonal temperature extremes are moderated. Only in the Northwest do continental extremes similar to those in North America occasionally occur.

Argentina's very great north–south distance covering 33 degrees of latitude also influences the climate of the country. In the Northwest, for example, only the Andean peaks that rise above 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) high are covered by snow, whereas at the southern tip of the nation the snow line is below 1,500 feet (500 meters). Glaciers can be found in mountain lake valleys, such as that of Lago Argentino, as far to the north as 50° S. latitude.

Moist mid-latitude winds rise from the Pacific Ocean to bring rain and snow to the higher slopes of the Andes. Winter snow cover has made the area near San Carlos de Bariloche a world famous ski resort known as the Argentine Switzerland. As the prevailing westerly winds descend the eastern slopes of the Andes, they become warmer and increase their capacity to absorb moisture. Consequently, few clouds form and precipitation is minimal throughout the western plateau of Argentina. Locally these drying winds are called the zondas.

In addition to the presence of the zondas a cold offshore ocean current in the Atlantic contributes to the dryness of the climate. Moist air over the Atlantic cools over the frigid waters of the current and loses its moisture as fog or rain before it can move inland.

The two conditions described combine to keep most of Patagonia dry. There, precipitation of less than 10 inches (250 millimeters) falls per year. More than two thirds of Argentina does not receive soil moisture sufficient for nonirrigated agriculture. As is typical of such regions occasional short-lived heavy rains produce flash floods. At other times dust storms cover extensive areas. In central north Argentina the precipitation is not sufficient to sustain the flow of rivers, especially during the warm summers when evaporation is highest. Many end in salt lakes, like the Mar Chiquita, or in large saltwater swamps. Storms moving in the westerly wind belt across Patagonia occasionally become diverted to the northeast and may bring frost and even light snow to Buenos Aires. Such storms are usually accompanied by strong south winds and are called pamperos. They occur several times a century and cause crop damage in the Gran Chaco and Misiones.

In the extreme south of Patagonia precipitation once again increases because the Andes are lower. There the climate is cool and moist throughout the year and much of the land is forested. In Ushuaia, Argentina's southernmost city, winter snows are sometimes heavy, and, because of the high latitude of nearly 55° S., the sun in June and July barely rises above the mountainous horizon even at noon.

Another notable weather condition is caused by an Atlantic storm called the sudestada that passes over northeastern Argentina. This storm produces heavy rains that cause the sudden flooding of rivers.

The Pampa can be divided into two climatic zones, the coastal humid pampa, or pampa húmeda, and the dry pampa, or pampa seca. The pampa húmeda receives abundant precipitation and is Argentina's major grain and livestock region. In the pampa seca, precipitation is less abundant and crops grown there must be irrigated.

The soils of Argentina's two main agricultural zones, the Pampa and the Northeast, differ greatly. In the Pampa sufficient moisture and grass cover have combined with sedimentary and windblown material to form brown-black phaeozems, which have considerable organic matter at the surface, and deep, fertile prairie soil sometimes called chernozem. In certain areas alfalfa roots penetrate 15 feet (4.5 meters) into this soft, easily crumbled soil.

In northeastern Argentina deep red soils that are derived from basaltic (volcanic) rocks of the Paraná plateau extend over most of Misiones Province. These red soils are unlike many similar-looking ones that are found elsewhere in the tropics and the subtropics in that they are only slightly acidic, possess some plant nutrients, and are well-drained. Consequently, such crops as citrus fruits, sugarcane, and maté can be grown well in them, especially when fertilizers are used.

Relatively intensive settlement in the most habitable parts of Argentina has decimated the formerly abundant animal life. The two most notable remaining forms are members of the wildcat family in Misiones Province, and the rhea, the American three-toed ostrichlike bird of the pampas. Some ranches feature rides for children on the backs of rheas.

People

The first people to live in what is now Argentina were American Indians. The most important groups belonged to the Guaraní tribes in the Northeast. They were farming Indians among whom the Roman Catholic Society of Jesus (Jesuits) during the colonial era established Utopia-like missions (Misiones Province). A group of nomadic Indians lived on the pampas. When they obtained horses from Spanish invaders, they became highly successful military opponents of the Europeans and were not finally conquered until the 20th century. Scattered tribes inhabited the Andean zone from north to south. Most of the native peoples died in warfare and from diseases following the Spanish invasion, which began in 1516. Today only 3 percent of the people of Argentina are Indians and mestizos (mixed). The rest of the people are of European descent.

Modern Argentina is inhabited by many people of European descent and by a few American Indians. Although various estimates have been made for the Indian population before the Spanish conquest, a conservative number might be 300,000 for the present national area. After the various phases of discovery, exploration, and settlement, the Indian population had been drastically cut. About 40,000 live in Argentina today, primarily in remote Andean valleys and in the Gran Chaco. However, their physical features are sometimes apparent in many gauchos—the Pampa cowboys descended from Spanish fathers and Indian mothers and who are, therefore, mestizos.

It should be noted that African slaves were never important in Argentina because neither mining nor plantation agriculture played a significant role in the colonial economy. Consequently, as European settlers arrived, a white population soon became dominant. By the time Argentina achieved its independence in 1824, the vast majority of the populace had been born in South America.

After independence was gained, political chaos prevented unification of the country. However, the idea of planned pioneer settlement for the purpose of inhabiting the country's vast empty spaces was carried forward from time to time. In 1856, for example, Swiss and German settlers were invited to found new colonies in the provinces of Buenos Aires and Santa Fe. Other small European groups went to Misiones Territory far to the northeast on the Brazilian border. Then a great wave of foreign immigration began in the early 1880s and lasted for a decade. At that time Italians along with some Spaniards arrived to open the pampas. This marked the beginning of change in the Argentine economy, as European demand for wool, tallow, mutton, and hides increased rapidly until the end of the century. Domestic sheep flocks replaced wild cattle on the plains, and cattle breeding from new European stock began.

Another immigration wave occurred from 1904 to 1913. Prosperity brought about the construction of a railroad network, which began to stretch across the pampas, and the blossoming of the city of Buenos Aires with its international port. Everything was paid for by the productivity of agriculture on the rich soils of the immediate hinterland. By the time World War I began 30 percent of the Argentine population was foreign-born.

Another period of immigration between the two world wars marked the onset of the modern development of Misiones Territory by many groups from Europe, especially Germans. A more recent immigration between 1947 and 1955 brought tens of thousands of Italians and Spaniards to the country. Thereafter, immigration from Europe ceased because of the improved economic conditions there. Moreover, the Argentine economy began to falter seriously at the same time.

Though immigration from Europe stopped in recent years, Argentina at this time began to attract migrants from other South American countries. This resulted in such oddities as the largest population of urban Paraguayans not being in Asunción, Paraguay, but in Buenos Aires. In northwestern Argentina Bolivians cross the border in sizable and growing numbers, and a small but steady migration from Chile has influenced the population in Patagonia since the early 1900s.

In addition to immigration there is also a seasonal movement of foreign labor into various parts of Argentina. This is due largely to the lack of mechanization for harvesting crops in much of the nation. For instance, thousands of Paraguayans cross the border to work during the maté harvests in Misiones between December and March. Others come from Bolivia and Chile to help with grape picking in Cuyo and Mendoza from April to July and following that for the sugarcane, cotton, and tobacco harvests in the northern sections of Argentina.

In the early 1900s the Argentine population structure reflected a growing rural element with the majority of the people less than 20 years of age. In more recent years, especially in the cities, the 30- to 50-year-olds have emerged as the dominant group. These data reflect the composition of Buenos Aires, the capital and largest city. More than 12 million people live in Buenos Aires and the surrounding area. By the late 1990s there were 29 other cities in the country with more than 250,000 people, reflecting a trend that shows the nonurban population of Argentina steadily declining. (See also Buenos Aires.)

Economy

Argentina has traditionally been one of the more prosperous Latin American countries. Unlike many of its neighbors, the country has developed a strong manufacturing industry and has become less dependent on agriculture. Today the country is largely self-sufficient in consumer goods. However, the Argentine economy in the late 20th century, like that of many countries, suffered from severe inflation. This condition was complicated by an unstable government and continuing domestic and international political problems. By the mid-1990s, however, economic reforms implemented by the government of President Carlos Saúl Menem succeeded in bringing inflation under 5 percent.

Architecture and the Arts

In colonial times Argentina's culture was mainly adopted from Spain. Churches and public buildings in such cities as Córdoba and Salta reflect Spanish architectural styles. Development of a national culture based on Argentine life came about in the 19th century. Foremost among artists was Prilidiano Pueyrredón, who is noted for his paintings of the Pampa region and of gaucho life.

Melancholy songs sung to the accompaniment of a guitar formed the basis of Argentine folk music. This music figured prominently in the rise of Argentina's major contribution to popular music, the tango. In 19th-century literature the gaucho's decline is mourned in the popular gaucho poem Martín Fierro by José Hernández. (See also Latin American literature.)

French, Spanish, and Italian influences have been strong in art, music, and literature. Argentina has about 100 art museums, many with schools. Numerous painters and sculptors reside in the picturesque La Boca district on the waterfront of Buenos Aires. The large Italian population helps account for the strong support of grand opera. There are symphony orchestras in many of the country's cities. The Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires is one of the world's largest performing arts centers and attracts many famous artists during its regular June to August season. It is also the headquarters of the national ballet and national symphony.

Education

Argentina has one of the highest literacy rates in South America. Public schools were built by government subsidies, especially under the leadership of President Domingo F. Sarmiento from 1868 to 1874. Primary education is compulsory and free, but further training is expensive. Vocational schools offer commercial, agricultural, and industrial instruction.

The first university in the country was established at Córdoba in 1613. Other national universities were founded in Buenos Aires (1821), La Plata (1884), San Miguel de Tucumán (1914), Santa Fe (1919), Mendoza (1939), Bahía Blanca (1956), Corrientes (1957), and Santa Rosa (1959).

Government

The constitution of Argentina was adopted in 1853 and has been amended several times, most recently in 1994. It established Argentina as a federal republic with separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The constitution calls for an executive branch to be headed by a president, who is elected directly by the people for a term of four years and who may serve only two terms. The president and the vice-president must both be Roman Catholics and at least 30 years old. The president also serves as commander in chief of the armed forces.

According to the constitution the legislature—the Argentine National Congress—is to consist of two houses, the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is to be composed of three members from each of Argentina's 22 provinces, the Federal District, and the National Territory of Tierra del Fuego. Provincial senators must be 30 years of age and are elected by their local legislatures for six-year terms. Members of the Chamber of Deputies must be at least 25 years old and are elected directly by the people for four-year terms. The number of deputies is based on population. Voting is compulsory for all citizens between the ages of 18 and 70 with exceptions based on such conditions as health and distance from a polling place. Some people have also been deprived of the right to vote for legal reasons.

The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court and a series of lower courts. The five justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life by the president with the consent of the Senate. Federal court jurisdiction includes those cases that involve the constitution and laws and treaties of the nation.

In 1976 the elected civilian government was deposed by the armed forces, an event that has often occurred in Argentine history. A military junta then took control of Argentina under a revised constitution that called for the president to be a retired army officer in addition to the other requirements. All activity by political parties was suspended by the regime established by the junta. With the return to civilian rule in 1983, the constitution of 1853 was restored.

In international affairs Argentina is a member of the United Nations, the World Bank, and the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade. To participate in regional matters it belongs to the Organization of American States.

History

The level of Indian civilization before the arrival of the Europeans in the early 16th century did not approach that of the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas farther north. Some of the Indians in what is now Argentina were nomadic hunters, while others grew crops.

Initial attempts by the Spaniards, the first Europeans to arrive, in 1516, in Argentina, to found settlements on the south bank of the Río de la Plata as well as on the Paraná River failed because of Indian attacks. The original colony of Buenos Aires, which was founded in 1536 by Pedro de Mendoza, was abandoned four years later, and a new settlement was established in safer territory far upstream at Asunción. The Spaniards first succeeded at Asunción because the more sedentary Guaraní Indians living there were friendlier than the nomadic types farther south. Finally, working downstream from Asunción, the Spaniards founded Santa Fe in 1573. They resettled Buenos Aires in 1580, and this time it became a permanent settlement.

The Spaniards hoped to establish an inland trade route leading from Buenos Aires to the silver mines located at Potosí, Bolivia. Transport of silver and supplies over this route never succeeded because of flooding during the wet season and low water in the Pilcomayo River region of the Gran Chaco during the dry season. As a result of their interest in the silver trade and also because of hostile Indians to the south the Spaniards did not settle the fertile pampas until the 19th century.

Before the Spaniards tried to open the northwest trade route to Bolivia, other conquistadores had crossed the Andes in Chile and Peru and founded a line of cities stretching from north to south along the east side of the mountains. Their purpose was to supply the Bolivian mining region with food and mules for transport and to secure the region for trade. The latter was important to Buenos Aires, which received supplies from Spain via Panama, the Pacific Ocean, and Chile rather than directly across the Atlantic. The whole La Plata region was a subdivision of the viceroyalty of Peru and did not carry on direct trade with Spain until after 1776, when it was made a separate viceroyalty.

Because of this enforced isolation the inhabitants of what is now Argentina had to develop their own production. For example, escaped horses that roamed wild on the pampas were periodically hunted for their hides and tallow and were also used in the transport of cargo and for riding. There quickly arose a gaucho tradition much like the cowboy tradition once found in the western United States. Indians who captured wild horses became formidable enemies who were not conquered easily. They were the basic reason that forts had to be built near Buenos Aires and that horses were obtained from hunting expeditions rather than raised by breeding ranches, or estancias. These horse ranches were not even developed until after the Indian threat had ended.

As local agriculture and industry grew in the La Plata region, surplus products such as hides, vicuña (a small llama-like animal) wool, and silver were used to trade for smuggled European goods. The long Pacific trade route with Spain was time-consuming and expensive, and so Spanish settlers bargained with the Portuguese who sold merchandise in Colonia, a town they had built on the left bank of the Río de la Plata opposite Buenos Aires. However, after the creation of the Río de la Plata viceroyalty in 1776 Buenos Aires traded directly with Spain. Hides and meat preserved by salting were shipped to Spain and became the most important trade items. The interior Andean towns declined in importance after the center of trade became focused on the Atlantic coast.

In 1806 British troops occupied Buenos Aires. Deserted by the Spanish viceroy, the people (porteños) ousted the British by themselves. After Napoleon I conquered Spain, colonial resistance to Spanish rule spread in Latin America. The porteños set up a revolutionary government on May 25, 1810. The formal independence of the new United Provinces of the Río de la Plata was declared on July 9, 1816. Several years of fighting followed before the Spanish royalists were finally defeated. The hero of the war was Gen. José de San Martín (see San Martín). Rival parties sought control of the new government. The resulting chaos permitted Juan Manuel de Rosas to seize power in 1829. He maintained a cruel and repressive dictatorship until it was overthrown in 1852. In 1853 Argentina became a federal republic.

During the next several decades the nation's economy expanded. As Indian tribes were defeated on the pampas, tracts of their land were given away by the government. In 1880 Gen. Julio Roca, hero of the Indian wars, became president. Other presidents of that era were Bartolomé Mitre (1862–68) and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1868–74), who fostered educational reforms. Roque Sáenz Peña (1910–14) established the secret ballot and allowed adult males to vote. Hipólito Irigoyen (1916–22 and 1928–30) instituted advanced labor laws.

Argentina remained neutral during World War I. The postwar economic depression and growing corruption in government led in 1930 to a military coup, after which Gen. José Félix Uriburu was installed as president. A gradual return to democratic government in the 1930s was countered by a strong dictatorial trend. Argentina remained neutral in World War II until 1945, when it finally declared war on Germany.

Colonel Juan Perón emerged after the war as Argentina's new strongman. Promising a better living for the urban workers, Perón was elected president in 1946. He repressed demands for democratic government but, aided by his popular actress-wife, Eva, was reelected by an overwhelming majority in 1951. He was determined to make Argentina industrially self-sufficient. Supported by constitutional reforms adopted in 1949, he nationalized railways, utilities, and other foreign-owned properties. Perón's downfall came when students, bankers, industrialists, and other groups turned against him. In 1952 the death of his wife, who had her own political following, also weakened his support. In September 1955 the armed forces rebelled, and Perón fled the country. After Perón's ouster, the country suffered from high unemployment, high inflation, and a series of military dictatorships.

Political unrest brought Perón back to leadership for a short time. He died in 1974, and he was succeeded by his third wife, María Estela (Isabel) Martínez de Perón, the first woman head of state in South America. In 1976 she was forced by the military to resign because she was unable to curb the extreme inflation rate. The military took over, and Gen. Jorge Rafaél Videla assumed the presidency. During the so-called dirty war that followed, thousands of leftists and other political opponents were killed or imprisoned or simply disappeared. The Argentine government, maintaining that it was fighting a civil war, was subject to much criticism at home and abroad for civil rights violations. (See also Perón.)

In 1982 a military conflict took place between Argentina and Great Britain over control of the Falkland Islands, known in Argentina as the Islas Malvinas. Although the islands lie about 300 miles (480 kilometers) off the east coast of Argentina, they have been controlled by Britain since 1833. Argentina also claimed the Falklands, and in 1982 Argentine troops invaded East Falkland. A British naval force counterattacked soon after the Argentine occupation, and the British quickly regained control over the islands. (See also Falkland Islands.)

The defeat caused Lieut. Gen. Leopoldo Galtieri to resign as president of Argentina; his successor, Maj. Gen. Reynaldo Bignone, promised a return to civilian rule. In October 1983 a lawyer, Raúl Alfonsín of the centrist Radical Civic Union, was elected president. His victory ended the military regime and the domination the Peronist party had held since the 1940s. In 1987 and 1988 there were uprisings by military officers who opposed Alfonsín's government. In 1989 the country faced its worst energy crisis in 40 years and continued to be plagued by severe inflation. In May 1989 Carlos Saúl Menem of the Peronist party was elected president. Alfonsín resigned at the end of June, and Menem was inaugurated on July 8, five months ahead of schedule, so he could tackle the huge economic problems of the country. Menem vowed to institute a policy of strict budgetary monitoring and a sharp reduction in social spending. He reversed five decades of state control of the economy by planning a free-market economy, with lower tariffs based on wage-price pacts between labor, business, and government, and by declaring that all major state-owned industries would be privatized by 1993. He also sought to quell the military's discontent by pardoning those involved in the dirty war of the 1970s, a move for which he was strongly criticized. Menem was reelected to a second term in May 1995.

From the perspective of most citizens, Menem's policy of economic austerity meant a return to the pre-Perón days of acute inequality in the distribution of wealth. By the mid-1990s widespread poverty gripped a large portion of the nation's inhabitants. During the years of Menem's presidency, hundreds of thousands of workers lost their jobs during the privatization of nationalized industries. From mid-1996 until mid-1997, the unemployment rate across Argentina exceeded 17 percent. In 1997 citizens unhappy with the government's continuing policies of economic austerity staged mass demonstrations and riots in major cities and towns across the country. Tens of thousands of Argentineans, demanding reductions in the nation's rampant unemployment levels and cutbacks in social spending, took part in the riots that closed down streets and large sections of urban areas for more than a week. The mass outpouring of anger threatened to bring down Menem's government. (See also South America.) Population (2002), 36,446,000.