Surface Features

China's land surface is rugged and uneven. Almost one third of the total area consists of mountains and hills. Traveling westward from the coast in central China means going steadily upward across a series of hills and ridges, plateaus, and elevated basins. This climb ends at the Plateau of Tibet with the Himalayas on its southern flank. (See also Tibet; Himalayas.)

The major mountains, plateaus, and basins of the west—the Himalayas, Kunlun Mountains (also Kunlun Shan), Tian Shan, Altai, Plateau of Tibet, Tarim Basin, and Junggar Basin—follow an eastward axis. The main structural orientation of the mountains in the east—Great Khingan Range (also Da Hingan Ling) and Taihang—is north-south. Where these mountains cross, they form what has been likened to a gigantic checkerboard. This checkerboard pattern is not so clear in the south, however, because the low but rugged Nan Ling mountains form a more complex association of hills and ridgelines.

In the southwest the ridges are folded into extremely rugged, high uplands separating the major drainage systems of several great rivers. Extensive areas in southwest China are underlaid with limestone. This karst, or limestone, region has been weathered into some unusual and striking landscapes that feature a variety of steep domes and towers. These landscapes have served as a popular theme for the traditional school of Chinese landscape painting.

Major Rivers

Natural Resources

China has a large and varied stock of natural resources. The variety of different landforms, soil conditions, and climate patterns offers many different kinds of opportunities for agricultural production. A tremendous range of food and industrial crops can be grown, and this makes it possible for China to keep imports to a minimum.

Another aspect of China's natural endowment is its rich supply of mineral resources, a product of its complex geology. In ancient geologic times much of what is now China was under the sea. Movements of the Earth's crust against three huge, stable masses of ancient Precambrian rock (in southeastern China, Tibet, and Inner Mongolia) gave rise to China's characteristic parallel ridges and plains. In the lowlands and basins, which were repeatedly submerged during the Paleozoic era hundreds of millions of years ago, great quantities of carbon-containing material were deposited, and these became the carbon-based fossil fuels—coal and petroleum—that exist today. Deposits of other minerals accumulated as a result of geologic processes, including vulcanism associated with the crustal movements.

China's coal and petroleum reserves are abundant. Reserves of tungsten, antimony, tin, mercury, salt, fluorspar, and magnesite are among the largest in the world, and the tungsten and antimony deposits may be the largest. China also has sizable reserves of iron and manganese ores, bauxite (aluminum ore), limestone, and copper, though it remains to be determined whether these are sufficient to meet China's growing domestic needs.

China leads the world in the size of its coal reserves, which are estimated at more than 600 billion tons. These reserves would keep China supplied with coal for about 500 years if usage were to continue at its present level. China produces more than 1.1 billion tons of coal annually, most of it bituminous coal or lignite. China relies on coal as its primary energy source, a condition likely to continue at least through the 20th century.

Petroleum is not as easy to estimate as coal, but China is believed to have extensive reserves, both on land and offshore. There are a number of large areas with the right characteristics to contain oil and gas scattered throughout the country, and oil and gas have been discovered in more than half a dozen of them. In addition, there are believed to be major offshore deposits in the Bo Hai Gulf; the Yellow Sea; the East China Sea; the Formosa, or Taiwan, Strait; and the South China Sea. All of these deposits are in the continental shelf, the natural extension of the mainland under the adjacent water bodies.

Offshore prospecting is under way in several locations, with a number of Western and Japanese petroleum companies assisting China. Some offshore drilling has taken place, and producing wells have been developed in the Bo Hai Gulf region. In recent years, however, most of China's petroleum has come from the large Daqing field in Heilongjiang Province in the northeast or from fields in the North China Plain near the mouth of the Huang He. Petroleum production in 1992 totaled 1 billion barrels, enough to meet China's domestic needs and provide a small amount for export.

Difficult Environments

One of the most unusual and challenging regional environments in China is found on the plateau west of the North China Plain, called the Loess Plateau. Here the special type of soil known as loess covers tens of thousands of square miles. The loess is blown by the wind from the adjacent Ordos, Alxa, and Gobi deserts and has accumulated over thousands of years. In many places the loess forms a thick mantle that completely covers the original landforms. When the forest or prairie vegetation on the loess is disturbed, the soil in the upland regions is easily eroded and formed into gullies by summer rainstorms.

The southwest, with its extensive limestone deposits, irregular karst towers, and subsurface drainage networks, presents a different set of difficulties. There the problems are to find areas of level land large enough to cultivate and to keep water on the surface so it can be used for irrigation. Other environments within China pose their own challenges. Farming is difficult in many parts of the country, and large investments are needed to improve the land and control water for irrigation. Transportation networks are difficult and expensive to plan and build in many areas, where inaccessibility and geographic isolation have seriously impeded development for centuries.

Precipitation

Only the south and southeast have sufficient rainfall to support intensive farming. Just 20 to 26 inches (500 to 650 millimeters) of precipitation are common throughout much of the north and northeast. This is not enough to grow rice or to raise more than one crop per year. Consequently, much of north and northeast China must rely on irrigation water.

Western China gets very little rainfall. Most of this region consists of mountains or enclosed desert basins. In extreme western Xinjiang at Kashgar in the Tarim Basin, rainfall averages only 4 inches (100 millimeters) per year. About the same amount falls farther northeast, at Ürümqi in the Junggar Basin, while near Lhasa, high on the Plateau of Tibet, the average is about 11 inches (280 millimeters). These dry conditions permit little farming, even where drought-resistant crops such as gaoliang (Chinese sorghum) and some of the millets are grown. Irrigation is essential, and most of the settlements in western China developed initially around oases where there were dependable sources of water. In Tibet less water is needed because of the lower average temperature, but irrigation is becoming increasingly important as a means of making agricultural output more reliable.

An important feature of China's climate is the annual occurrence, usually in the summer or autumn, of great storms that sweep in from the western Pacific. These storms, called typhoons, are similar to Atlantic hurricanes. They are accompanied by high winds and tremendous quantities of rain, usually concentrated within a few hours. The storm paths most commonly focus on the southeastern coast, though sometimes they sweep northward toward Japan. Great damage may be done by the flooding caused by typhoons, especially in low-lying floodplains and basins.

Temperature

In general, temperature patterns in China are determined by north-south location, though there are some exceptions. South of the Qin Ling Mountains, an eastward extension of the Kunlun Mountains, average annual temperature is high and winters are generally mild. For example, the middle and lower Yangtze Basin in southeastern China has mild winters and extremely hot summers, and the average temperature increases only gradually as one moves south into the tropical coastal areas. Average annual temperature drops rapidly north of the Qin Ling barrier. In much of this area there is a continental climate. This is reflected in the cold winters that occur in such cities as Beijing, Xi'an, and Harbin.

The length of the growing season for plants, defined as the period during which daily mean temperatures are above 43° F (6° C), varies in line with the temperature patterns. Thus, most of the area south of the Yangtze has a growing season of at least 300 days, mild enough to grow two crops a year. Along the southern and southeastern coast the growing season lasts all year round. Light frosts may occur, but they are not severe enough to kill most plants. North of the Yangtze Basin average temperatures drop sharply, and the growing season shortens rapidly as distance north increases. In the northern interior the growing season is less than 180 days.

Vegetation

As might be expected from its huge area and variety of regional climates, China has a great range of vegetation. Most of the types of plants that grow in the Northern Hemisphere can be found there, except for those varieties common to arctic and tundra regions. In Hainan Island in the extreme south, and along the southern coast, there are rain forests and associated plant communities typical of the humid tropics. The high, rugged mountains of western China and Tibet contain alpine and subalpine plants. Other regions of China exhibit a variety of plant life common to deserts, steppes and savannas, prairie meadows, mangrove swamps, and coniferous evergreen and deciduous forests.

It is possible, however, to divide this broad range of plants into regional groupings. Thus there is a clear distinction between the character of the plant life in the humid and subhumid east and that of the dry west. The eastern part of the country can be further subdivided into four regions: (1) the tropical, humid southeast, which supports a tropical rain forest; (2) the subtropical southern and central area of broadleaved evergreens, pines, and varieties of bamboo; (3) the mid-latitude forest zone of mainly deciduous species, which extends from the Yangtze north to the Northeast region, formerly called Manchuria; and (4) the less humid but cooler extreme north and northeast, with evergreen conifers and northern deciduous tree species similar to those of the taiga zone in Russia. Throughout China coarse grasses have grown up where forests have been removed. In southern China there is a tough, fibrous type of grass that impedes further economic use of the land. Savanna grasslands are common in the tropics.

The large, dense population of eastern China has placed great pressure on the natural vegetation. Especially serious is the demand for wood and forest products. Over the centuries, the great need for firewood, construction material, and paper has led to a serious loss of trees. In many places in eastern China it is difficult to determine the nature of the original vegetation. Today the main commercial forests (mostly conifers, birch, and ash) are found in northeastern China. There are also important and accessible commercial forests on the eastern flank of Tibet and Qinghai.

In the mountains, deserts, and steppes of the west, where rainfall is low and winters are cold, the flora is not rich. Vegetation in the deserts and at higher elevations often consists of several species of grasses and subshrubs. Three major vegetation zones of western China have been identified: Inner Mongolia, the Junggar and Tarim basins, and Tibet. Within these three zones, the plant life varies according to local ecological conditions rather than according to north-south location. Trees, for example, are found where precipitation is greatest and where the average annual temperature permits their growth.

On the windward, northern slopes of the Tian Shan facing the Junggar Basin, forests of such trees as spruce, birch, ash, and aspen are found up to 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) above sea level. However, there is great variation in the extent and type of tree cover as a result of differences in slope conditions, temperature, and moisture. At higher elevations and in drier steppe and desert locations a variety of grasses, shrubs, and sedges are common. The harshest region in western China is the western part of the Plateau of Tibet, a cold, forbidding desert above 14,800 feet (4,500 meters). Plant growth under such conditions is highly restricted.

Soils

The nature of the underlying bedrock and the local topography are the most important factors in determining the formation and character of a soil, but climate and vegetation also play a major role. For example, in humid regions, especially under forest cover, the soils are leached, or drained by water, of certain minerals and nutrients and become acidic. In drier, cooler environments, where soils have developed under a grass cover and chemical weathering has been reduced, the soil typically has a higher humus content and is alkaline.

In the humid tropical and subtropical regions of southeastern China, the soils generally have been leached of alkalis, leaving high concentrations of aluminum and iron oxides in the subsoil. Commonly known as lateritic soils, they are acidic and frequently have a reddish color. In general, they are not good for agriculture. A similar process has taken place in the humid but cooler areas of central and northeastern China and also at higher elevations in the west, especially where forests of cone-bearing trees have been present. In these soils, alkalis and iron compounds have been leached from the surface layer and clay and humus have accumulated in the subsoil. Traditionally called podzols, these soils are common at higher elevations in much of China.

The dry areas of China, especially in Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Ningxia Huizu, Xinjiang, and parts of northeastern China, are covered with desert, steppe, and prairie soils, some of which are very rich. These soils are fundamentally different from the acidic types. Typically, they develop in dry areas as a result of the concentration of magnesium and calcium carbonates and have a high humus and alkaline content. They range from the extremely rich chernozem, or black earth, type of the northeast to the thinner, poorer brown steppe and gray-brown near-desert soils of Inner Mongolia and arid areas of Xinjiang.

In addition to these major soil groupings, there are other soil types that are important. Loess, the windblown, fine-grained, yellow earth found over wide areas in Shaanxi and Shanxi provinces, is generally alkaline and potentially fertile, but it erodes easily. Many desert and mountain soils are thin and poorly developed and are essentially useless for any agricultural purpose. Perhaps most important for agriculture are the alluvial soils associated with the floodplains of streams and rivers. They are generally acidic and not rich, but they are easy to work and are usually near water. Especially in central and south China, they are used extensively for the production of such crops as rice, wheat, and cotton. With proper techniques, they can support some of the world's most intensive year-round farming.

China has only a modest supply of arable land (about 10 percent of the total land area). Where precipitation is sufficient for growing crops, however, Chinese farmers have satisfactory to good soils to work with or they have improved existing soils by adding natural nutrients. Controlling runoff and erosion is the great problem in the loess areas. In low-lying floodplains, the water tables may be too high, resulting in the accumulation of excessive chemical compounds called salts. Nevertheless, China's soils are generally satisfactory, and local farmers and scientists have worked together to maintain and improve their quality and productivity.

Animal Life

Animals of the north include the Siberian tiger, wolf, badger, lynx, sika and musk deer, weasel, sable, stone marten, flying squirrel, snow rabbit, pheasant, mandarin duck, and the white-headed crane. Dry areas of the northwest are home to the wild donkey, Bactrian camel, Mongolian gazelle, and Mongolian beaver, as well as big horn sheep. Western birds include the whooper swan, pheasants, quail, and the great bustard. Sika deer, Tibetan antelope, rock sheep, yak, snow leopard, Himalayan brown bear, and such unusual birds as the Tibetan snow cock live at high elevations in Tibet and Qinghai.

Much of the distinctive animal life of the southern and central parts of the country is associated with forested hills or aquatic environments. The panda, golden cat, clouded leopard, rhesus macaque, and takin, or goat antelope, are found in the southwest, and the giant salamander, Yangtze dolphin, crocodile lizard, several types of badgers and weasels, the golden langur, and the tiger in the Yangtze Basin. South China has hornbills, pheasants, monkeys, deer, and civets as well as the tigers and clouded leopards.

This listing is by no means complete, but it indicates the rich variety of wildlife found in China and the importance of China as a preserve for the world's animals. Many of China's animals are the same or similar to those in neighboring lands. Distinctively Chinese species occur especially in the mountains.

Society and the Family

Traditionally the family has been the most important unit of society, and this is still true. The family is also an important economic unit. In rural areas, where about 72 percent of China's people live, the traditional family consisted of the head of the household, his sons, and their wives and children, often living under one roof. Common surnames gave families membership in a clan. In some villages all families had the same surname, or four or five surname clans might account for most of the villagers.

Land, the main form of wealth in traditional China, was divided equally among all the landowner's surviving sons when he died. Thus, as China's population grew, the landholdings became smaller and smaller, and many people were very poor. In the first half of the 20th century the family as a social unit came under severe stress. Rural conditions were bad, income was low, and food was often scarce. Health care was poor or nonexistent for most peasants, and mortality rates were high. Civil unrest, warfare, and foreign invasions added to the difficulties.

After the Communist revolution in 1949 rural conditions stabilized. Private ownership of land was abolished, but each peasant family was given a small plot to farm. Health care improved. The fluctuations in the food supply leveled off and life expectancy increased. Living conditions for the average peasant are generally better today than they were in 1949, and there are opportunities for at least some education. All these things have meant a considerable improvement in the quality of life and greater security for the family as a social unit.

Today some rural families are still likely to have three generations under one roof. Despite state ownership of the land, they once again serve as basic production units. The Production Responsibility System, initiated in 1978, permits individual families to contract with their local production team or brigade to lease land for farming. Production quotas are also contracted. Whatever is left after taxes are paid and quotas are met belongs to the family. If a family works hard, it can meet its contract quotas and also produce a surplus for consumption or sale. This program was designed to stimulate production, but one result has been to strengthen the role of the traditional family as a consuming and producing unit.

Urban family life is different from that in rural areas. In the cities, families usually are smaller, often composed only of parents and children. Since both parents work, the children are left in day-care centers or schools. Sometimes couples are split up if their work units are not close together, and husband and wife may see each other only rarely. Despite such problems, family life for most people in the cities is stable, and family ties continue to play a major role in the lives of both parents and children.

Cities

More than 500 million people live in and around cities in China, according to the 1990 census. There are more urban dwellers in China than are found in either the United States or Russia. Some of the cities are quite large. Shanghai, for example, has more than 7 million people; Beijing has more than 6 million, and Tianjin more than 5 million. Many cities have more than 1 million people each. Even so, city dwellers represent a relatively low percentage of the total population—about 28.1 percent. (See also Beijing; Shanghai; Tianjin.)

China's cities are expanding rapidly. The government is attempting to regulate urban growth in order to avoid such problems as congestion, overcrowding, slum development, and unemployment. It is difficult, for example, for a person to move to a city unless he or she has a permanent job and a housing permit. Through such constraints, China can slow the migration of people to cities and encourage the kind of urban and regional growth that planners believe is most suitable. Nevertheless, it seems quite likely that urbanization, the flow of people to cities, will continue to be a factor as China modernizes and its economy continues to expand.

Ethnic and Language Groups

The concept of being Chinese is not based on race. Rather, it is a cultural concept. To speak and behave like a Chinese—in short, to accept the Chinese system of cultural values—is to be Chinese. The Chinese refer to themselves as Han or sons of Han (as in Han Dynasty, a period of great historical significance). Throughout history, small ethnic groups that came into contact with the Han Chinese have adopted Chinese culture and have been absorbed into the mainstream. This process continues, though there are legal guarantees designed to protect the rights and culture of minority nationalities.

Traditionally, the definition of a minority nationality in China is a group of people who speak a common language, occupy a common area, and share a common sense of social values. They see themselves as non-Chinese—not belonging to the majority Han Chinese population. In 1990 approximately 91 million people, or 8 percent of China's population, were members of minority nationalities. In 1978 the central government recognized 55 minority nationalities with populations ranging from 300 (the Lobo, a small group living in Tibet) to 12 million (the Zhuang in southwestern China). Thirteen of the nationalities had populations of 1 million or more, and 27 had at least 100,000 members.

Although the minority nationalities represent a comparatively small proportion of the total population of China, they have an importance in Chinese society beyond their numbers because of the strategic territories they occupy. Most minority nationalities live along China's sparsely populated frontiers and have cultural relationships with minority groups in neighboring countries, such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, North Korea, Mongolia, Thailand, and Myanmar (formerly called Burma). If these groups became hostile toward the central government it could affect China's national security.

In part, the guarantees protecting the minority nationalities are expressed in the structure of China's administrative system. In addition to the 22 provinces, there are five autonomous regions, based on the location of five of the larger and more important minority nationalities. These are the Zhuang, a group of more than 42 million occupying the Guangxi Zhuangzu Autonomous Region; the Hui, or Muslims, a religious group of more than 4 million occupying the Ningxia Huizu Autonomous Region; the Uygurs, a Turkic group of more than 15 million in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region; the Tibetans, or Zang, a group of 2.2 million who live in the Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province, an area of high plateaus and mountains bordering India; and the Mongols, a group of more than 21 million occupying the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region between Mongolia and northern China. In addition, smaller units such as autonomous prefectures, leagues, and banners (equivalent to British counties) are based on their occupancy by even smaller minority groupings.

This administrative system is designed to give the minorities political equality with the Han people and to help them maintain their distinctive identities. At the same time, Putonghua (based on the Mandarin dialect spoken in the Beijing area) is being promoted as the official spoken language of the country. All minority peoples are urged to learn it. Generally, all minorities live harmoniously with the Han. The government has adopted measures to promote economic development among minorities to enable them to catch up with the Han.

Religion

Buddhism, which came to China from India as early as the 1st century AD, was a more conventional religion. Its followers attended occasional services, practiced rituals, and supported a temple on a regular basis. It has been estimated that more than 68 million Chinese still consider themselves Buddhists, though it is unlikely that they practice the religion regularly (see Buddhism). Prior to 1949, practices that may best be called folk religions were common throughout China. Although they incorporated elements of Buddhism and, especially, Taoism, these religions were usually local, often based on local gods, and served the local people.

Christian missionaries have been active in China since Roman Catholics belonging to the Jesuit order arrived in the early 17th century. Protestant missionaries first appeared in the early 19th century. All the Christian missionaries had difficulty converting the Chinese because Christianity was associated in the popular mind with Western imperialism. By 1949 there were only 3 or 4 million Christians in China, less than 1 percent of the total population. Islam came to China mainly from Central Asia, where it was practiced by many of the Turkic peoples. Today there are believed to be more than 4 million Chinese Muslims. One autonomous region, Ningxia Huizu, has been designated for Islamic adherents.

The Communists have discouraged religious practices, which they consider anti-socialist. Many temples and churches have been closed and their property taken. During the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (or simply the Cultural Revolution), a mass movement that lasted officially from 1966 to 1977, conditions were especially difficult, and religious practitioners were persecuted. The situation eased after 1977. A number of Buddhist temples were allowed to reopen. Worship services among Christians were permitted once again, and it is believed that as many as 2 million Christians are practicing their faith in China. The Chinese government is cautious about all religious activity, especially if it happens to involve foreign people in any way.

The Chinese Language

There are two elements to the Chinese language: the written language, based on individual symbols called characters, each of which represents an idea or thing; and the spoken language, which includes a number of different dialects. The written language originally had no alphabet, but it was easily understood by literate people no matter what dialect they spoke. Since the early 1950s a system using the Latin alphabet, called Pinyin, has been developed in China, and it is now in common use. Most of the spellings of Chinese sounds and names in this article are based on the Pinyin system of romanization. Those that are not are generally very familiar in their conventional form, such as the name Chiang Kai-shek.

Some of the numerous dialects of spoken Chinese are totally different from each other. All of them use tones to distinguish different words. Mandarin, which is spoken in the Beijing region and in northern China generally, has four common tones. Cantonese, spoken in southeastern China, has nine tones and is quite different from Mandarin. Today Putonghua, which is based on Beijing-area Mandarin, is the official language of government and education, and everyone is expected to learn to speak it. The central government is also expanding the use of the Pinyin romanization system and is urging citizens to learn this alphabetized system of writing Chinese words. (Pinyin represents the spoken sounds of Putonghua, which is an oral representation of Chinese characters.) Citizens are also urged to learn a simplified system of Chinese.

Literature

China has a very old and rich tradition in literature and the dramatic and visual arts. Early writings generally derived from philosophical or religious essays such as the works of Confucius (551–479 BC) and Lao-tzu (probably 4th century BC). These writings were often about how people should act and how the society and political system should be organized and operated. A strong tradition of historical writing also evolved. After the fall of a dynasty, for example, a grand history of the late dynasty was commissioned and written by scholars in the next dynasty.

In addition to philosophical, religious, and historical writings, China also produced poetry, novels, and dramatic writings from an early date. Poetry became well established as a literary form during the T'ang Dynasty, from AD 618 to 907. One of China's greatest poets, Li Po, wrote during this period. This tradition of poetry, often dealing with the relationship of humans to their natural surroundings, has continued.

Early Chinese novels often stressed character development and usually centered on an adventure or supernatural happening; an example is the classic Ming version of ‘Shui-hu chuan' (The Water Margin). Historical themes were also popular, as in the ‘Romance of the Three Kingdoms', written in the late Yüan period. There were also love stories such as the extremely popular ‘Dream of the Red Chamber', probably China's most famous novel. Many of the early novels were written anonymously. Often these works were written in the vernacular, and many authors felt it was beneath their station to be associated with this type of writing.

China's literary tradition continues to the present, though much 20th-century writing has concentrated on efforts to reform or modernize China. Probably the most famous 20th-century writer is Lu Xun, a poet, essayist, and novelist whose work focused on the need to modernize through revolution. Under Communism, writers have been expected to uphold the values of the socialist state, though the degree of control over their output has varied. (See also Chinese Literature; Confucius; Lao-tzu; Li Po; Lu Xun.)

The Visual Arts

With their stress on simplicity and economy, Chinese calligraphy, painting, and poetry are closely related. In all of them, the artist seeks to express both inner harmony and harmony with the natural surroundings. Chinese poets and painters often have sought inspiration by withdrawing to isolated, mountainous areas, and these landscapes have become conventional themes of Chinese art. Similarly, Chinese architecture has traditionally aimed to convey harmony with society and nature.

The magnificent life-size terra-cotta statues of men and horses, discovered in the early 1970s in the tomb of an emperor who died in 210 BC, provide some indication of the long history of Chinese sculpture. After the introduction of Buddhism into China, Buddhist subjects became dominant themes of the sculptor's art. Perhaps best known (and most copied) in the West, however, are the works of Chinese decorative artists, such as pottery, bronzes, lacquer ware, and exquisitely detailed jade and ivory carvings.

Education

The traditional educational system in China was based on literacy and the ability to read and write essays about the Confucian classics. Social advancement was achieved through successful completion of the imperial examinations, leading to an appointment in the imperial bureaucracy. Therefore, the questions asked in the imperial examinations determined the nature of the educational system. Since this examination system was used for many centuries and was not discarded until 1905, the Chinese educational system changed little during that time. The emphasis was on interpretation of the Confucian classics and the writing of elegant essays. Practical and scientific subjects were excluded.

Although in theory the imperial examinations were open to anyone, only the wealthy could afford to give their children the years of schooling that were necessary for success. It is no wonder that the highest social class, the elite of traditional Chinese society, came to be called the scholar-gentry. They controlled the land and wealth, and, in general, only their sons were taught the Confucian classics, passed the imperial examinations, and became imperial officers.

In the late 19th century, as the weaknesses of the Chinese economic and social system became more obvious, calls for reforming the educational system grew louder. Peking National University, with modern programs and courses, was founded in 1898. In 1905 the old imperial examination system was abolished. New courses in Western science and other nontraditional subjects were introduced, and new schools were established. The early 20th century was a period of rapid educational and intellectual change. Many young Chinese wanted to overturn the old society completely and reform China along modern, Western lines. Others advocated educational reform and social and political change, but within the framework of the traditional Confucian values. During the first half of the 20th century vast efforts were made to promote literacy. Both the Nationalist and Communist parties supported literacy and education, and both parties used education to promote their political goals. By 1945, however, it was estimated that only 20 percent of China's people could read and write.

Since the Communists came to power in 1949 literacy has risen rapidly. Today it is estimated that 78 percent of adults are literate. Educational policy, however, has varied considerably. Generally, a primary school education has been made available to almost everyone, and about 40 percent of young people are able to attend middle school. This reflects a belief that basic knowledge is essential to rural development and economic progress.

Education at the college or university level is difficult to obtain, however. The average primary school student has about one chance in 145 of enrolling in a university or college. More and more of China's young people are finishing high school, but no more than 2 to 3 percent of high school graduates go on to the next level. Policies on college admission have changed from time to time, and the basis of selection is not always clear. During the Cultural Revolution stress was placed on “good political background” as a requirement, and technical expertise was strongly criticized. Many schools and most universities were closed at that time, and education for China's youth and young adults was largely interrupted.The political climate changed in the late 1970s. Schools and universities were reopened. Admission came to be based on achievement, and scholastic goals emphasized technical learning and proficiency in subject matter. The political leaders who came to power after the Cultural Revolution believed that an educated group of professional managers, technicians, researchers, and teachers is essential for the modernization and development of China. Since 1978 the only requirement for admission to college has been a passing score on a college-entrance examination. The political background of an applicant's parents is no longer a factor in college admissions.

Health and Welfare

There has been remarkable improvement in the health and material well-being of most of China's people since the civil war. Life expectancy at birth has more than doubled in a little over four decades, rising from an estimated 35 years in 1949 to more than 71 years in 1992. In the same period, the annual death rate declined from 23 per 1,000 population to about six per 1,000.

Two major factors help to account for this progress. First, there has been a steady general improvement in the diet of the average citizen, resulting from larger and more reliable crop production. The old problem of periodic famine has largely disappeared, though poor harvests (such as that of the Loess Plateau in 1980) may still result in serious malnutrition. The average daily intake in the early 1990s was 2,700 calories per citizen, which is sufficient to sustain life and support a fair degree of physical activity. This compares with an average intake of 3,000 to 3,500 calories per person in the more heavily industrialized countries of the West.

The second factor is the great improvement in the nature and quality of health care. Diseases such as tuberculosis, cholera, typhus, malaria, leprosy, smallpox, typhoid, and bubonic plague traditionally took a heavy toll of lives in China. In addition, a variety of debilitating parasites, such as hookworm and the trematode worm that causes schistosomiasis, were widespread. Dysentery and acute diarrhea were serious problems, especially among young children. Poor diet, insanitary conditions, poverty, and lack of health care made the entire population vulnerable to disease. Fatal illness was frequent and often struck babies and young children.

The Communist government has made a tremendous effort to improve this situation. Inoculation against some diseases has been emphasized, as have cleanliness and sanitation. Health facilities, ranging from hospitals and clinics to “barefoot doctors”—people with some medical training who work especially in the villages—have been made available to the entire population. The cost of health care is low, and it is often provided by the farm commune or factory where a person is employed.

Most of the epidemic diseases that used to sweep over China have been brought under control. Such diseases as tuberculosis, encephalitis, cholera, and malaria and certain parasites still present problems, but to a lesser degree than in the prerevolutionary period. Diarrhea and dysentery are likely to continue as long as human waste (referred to as night soil) is used as a type of farm fertilizer. Nevertheless, the much improved figures of life expectancy indicate the tremendous progress that has been made in the fight against diseases.

Agriculture

Agriculture and rural activities are important in China for several reasons. Farming provides the food and fiber needed for the sustenance of China's people. At the same time, about 60 percent of the people depend on agriculture or related rural activities for their livelihood. Although industry and manufacturing contribute the largest share of China's total gross national product, agriculture is the economic way of life followed by the bulk of the population. Agriculture, moreover, has always provided the means of employment for most new workers entering the labor force. Today, with between 12 and 16 million new workers entering the labor force annually, agriculture must continue to absorb tremendous numbers of new workers while continuing to find ways to use these workers productively.

Finally, the agricultural sector is an important potential source of investment money. If, through hard work, good management, and the application of sound, scientific farming, Chinese agriculture is productive, capital surpluses can be created and invested in other sectors of the economy. This could accelerate the rate of economic growth and ultimately benefit all of China's people.

Forestry and Fishing

Despite China's large land area, its forest resources are modest. Much of the western interior is too high or too dry to support dense forest stands. In the humid east, the forests were harvested for centuries for building material and firewood, and little or no effort was made to regenerate them. In 1949 it was estimated that about 8 percent of the total surface of the country was covered with forests. Since then, an active program of forestation has been undertaken and it is estimated that the forested area has been increased to 12 to 13 percent. In recent years about 2.5 million acres (1 million hectares) of forestland have been added annually. The goal is to have 20 percent of China in forest. By contrast, more than 30 percent of the United States is forested.

As China's population and economy have grown, demand for wood and paper products has risen rapidly. China has been unable to meet this demand, and it seems doubtful that it will be able to do so in the foreseeable future. For example, there is a great need for railroad ties, electric utility poles, mine props, and building joists. China has had to seek out substitutes, such as concrete poles or steel beams, but these are expensive. Paper products, which tend to be cheap in the United States, are costly and sometimes hard to get in China. The destruction of forests has also had an effect on watersheds, leading to soil erosion and the silting up of stream channels. This, in turn, results in flooding and raises the cost of irrigation.

China's main forests are located in the Da Hingan (Great Khingan) and Changbai mountains of the Northeast region and in central and southeastern China. Northern conifers, larch, and birch are common trees of the Northeast. The forests of central and southeastern China are poorer, partly because they have been harvested so extensively. A variety of deciduous and evergreen species grow there, and there are also stands of eucalyptus and tropical hardwoods. Bamboo is an important forest plant, which has a variety of uses both in building construction and furniture making.

China has a long tradition of ocean and freshwater fishing and of aquaculture. Pond raising has always been important and has been increasingly emphasized to supplement coastal and inland fisheries threatened by overfishing. China is a leading producer of fish. In 1993 it produced 17.6 million tons, first among the world's nations. More than 57 percent of the total catch was from the ocean. The remainder came from rivers, canals, lakes, and ponds.

China's coastal zone is rich in fishes. All the coastal seas (Bo Hai Gulf, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea) have extensive areas of shallow water over the continental shelf. In these seas, especially the Yellow and East China, cold and warm ocean currents mix, creating an environment that is especially suitable for many species of ocean fishes, including croakers, mackerels, tuna, herring, and sharks. Several varieties of shellfish and specialties such as squid and octopus are also produced.

Fish farming on ponds and lakes in the interior of China is also important. This type of food production, called aquaculture, has a long history in some parts of the country. For example, near Canton there is an area of fishponds, mulberry orchards, and sugarcane fields. The fish are fed the leaves from the sugarcane and the waste from the silkworms, which feed on the mulberry leaves. The mud in the bottom of the fishponds is scraped up and used to fertilize the cane and the mulberry trees. In this way many of the nutrients are recycled. The fishponds produce several varieties of carp, a favorite food in southern China and Hong Kong. Although fish production averages only about 10 pounds (5 kilograms) per person each year, it is an important dietary supplement. The government has identified fishing as an important area for continued research and development.

Mining

The total extent of China's mineral resources is not known, but the country has substantial reserves of many valuable and important minerals and fossil fuels. Many of these deposits have been discovered since 1950, and new ones are still being found. China is well endowed with coal, iron, tin, copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, tungsten, mercury, antimony, magnesite, and fluorspar. It also has substantial petroleum reserves. There are some significant deficiencies, such as nickel, but generally China has one of the largest and richest stocks of minerals of any country, one that could easily support a modern industrial state.

Manufacturing

Before the introduction of Western technology in the 19th century, China had a long tradition of local industry going back almost 2,000 years. During that period the Chinese developed many technical innovations. From an early date they produced paper, gunpowder, and silk and printed from movable type. The tradition of making fine porcelain dates at least from the T'ang Dynasty. The production of luxury goods, fine handicrafts, and metalcrafting as well as the manufacture of tools were all well-established industries long before the arrival of Western entrepreneurs and engineers.

In the 19th century European industrial technology was introduced into China. New factories and manufacturing enterprises were established in the so-called treaty port cities, where the Western nations had obtained certain rights. Shanghai became an industrial center, as did some cities along major rivers like the Yangtze. During the 20th century the Northeast region developed rapidly as a center for coal and iron-ore production and the heavy metal and machine-building industries. The Soviets and Japanese, who controlled the area at various times, both invested heavily in the region's transportation and industry. It became the most industrialized part of the country. Other cities that developed into important industrial centers were Tianjin and Qingdao.

One of the first goals of the Communists after 1949 was to promote the growth of heavy industry, following the model of the Soviet Union. In doing this, they attempted to encourage industrial development in the interior and to avoid concentrating more wealth in the old treaty port cities. New steel mills were constructed at Wuhan on the Yangtze and at Baotou in Inner Mongolia. Other interior cities, such as Zhenzghou, Xi'an, Lanzhou, Ürümqi, Taiyuan, Beijing, and Shijiazhuang, also grew rapidly. At the same time, large coastal cities like Shanghai, Canton, Tianjin, and Lüda continued to attract industries that wished to take advantage of their good transport systems and physical facilities. These cities also provided a skilled labor force and access to international markets.

The whole range of industrial goods is produced in China today, though many consumer products remain in short supply. The output of China's factories extends from textiles to railway locomotives, jet planes, and computers. China is the world's largest producer of inexpensive cotton textiles and exports large quantities of textiles and garments. Food processing is important, and many agricultural goods are exported. China is also among the world's leaders in cement production. Iron- and steelmaking has declined, production having dropped somewhat to about 44 million tons annually. Other industrial products include television sets, bicycles, cars, trucks, and washing machines, though in quality and technical level they lag behind those made in Japan, the United States, and the European countries. The processing and manufacture of chemicals, including fertilizers, petroleum products, and pharmaceuticals, is another large and expanding segment of Chinese industry.

During the 1970s and 1980s China began to develop joint ventures with foreign manufacturers. The foreign concerns provided the technology, capital, and expertise, while China provided the materials, plant location, facilities, and labor. These joint ventures are concentrated in major cities and in special zones along the southeastern coast and are often associated with the production of goods for export.

Another aspect of China's push to industrialization has been the growth of rural industries, especially after 1960. Rural industrialization associated with five industries (farm machines, chemical fertilizer, cement, iron, and coal) was promoted vigorously during the 1960s and early 1970s. The aim was to produce manufactured goods locally where transportation and distribution systems were poor. The program achieved some success, but the quality of the goods was often low, and the costs of production were high because of the small scale. Eventually, China may abandon this type of production as the economies of large-scale production become more apparent and as transport systems improve. Meanwhile, local industries such as brickmaking and the production of small farm tools and equipment continue to fill an important need in China's farm economy.

Distribution and Trade

Trade in China is carried on at several levels. Within localities and regions, goods and money are exchanged to satisfy local needs and to meet government quotas. At the national level, goods are moved to meet the needs and demands of the overall economy. Internationally, China buys scarce goods and commodities to meet critical needs and sells goods that it can market at competitive prices.

During dynastic times, trade beyond the local level was mostly in luxury goods or in food grains during times of shortage. Trade was restricted because China's transportation system was poor and the costs of shipping and distribution were high. Since 1949 China's international trade policy has fluctuated, and its trading partners have changed. Initially, the Communist government traded mainly with the Soviet Union and other Communist-bloc countries and also provided Hong Kong with fresh food. Later, when China's relations with the Soviet Union became less friendly, there was less emphasis on trade with other Communist countries. Japan, Hong Kong, West Germany, Australia, and Canada became increasingly important as trading partners. Trade with the United States rose dramatically after President Richard Nixon visited China in 1972. By the early 1990s the United States accounted for about 11 percent of China's total foreign trade. China's foreign trade as a whole grew from $4.8 billion in 1971 to $166 billion in 1992.

China exports both agricultural commodities and goods (about one third of total exports) and manufactured goods (about half), as well as mineral products such as oil and coal. Foodstuffs account for about 6 percent of total imports and industrial supplies and materials such as crude steel and chemicals for about 50 percent. The remainder consists chiefly of expensive capital goods such as machinery, precision instruments, and transportation equipment. As China has sought to modernize its economy, foreign trade has been used to bring in new equipment and technologies as well as to meet scarcities in the domestic economy. Exports have been used to produce foreign earnings to pay for the imports. The Chinese have sought to maintain an even balance of trade so they can pay for imports rather than buying on credit.

Railways

Railway construction began in China late in the 19th century, and the first line, between Shanghai and Peking (Beijing), was opened in 1903. By World War II more than 15,500 miles (25,000 kilometers) of track had been built, primarily in the eastern and northeastern parts of the country. Much of the network was destroyed during the war, but rail construction began anew after 1949 and has continued ever since. By 1993 China had an estimated 43,131 miles (69,412 kilometers) of railroads. (By comparison, the United States had about three times as much trackage in that year.) By 1983 every province-level administrative unit except Tibet was served by rail, and plans were being made to extend a line south from the Lanzhou-Ürümqi line to Lhasa, in Tibet. Railways have become the most important form of transportation in China. For example, more than 50 percent of the country's traffic is moved by the railroad system.

China's rail network consists of a series of north-south trunk lines, crossed by a few major east-west lines. Most of the large cities are served by these trunk lines, but there are few spur or feeder lines, and the density of the network is low. Compared with India, which has 38,000 miles (61,000 kilometers) of railways, China has only about 10 percent more track to serve about three times the area. Many of the trunk lines cannot meet the demand for service. The sixth five-year plan (1981 to 1985) called for continued large investment in railways. The investment was used to improve the capacity of existing lines through double tracking or electrification, and to construct short lines where the government decided there was a crucial need for service.

Roads and highways

Although it has been in use for many centuries, the road and path network in China has always been poor. Goods and people were carried in various ways. Conditions were bad, and travel was slow and costly. Not until the introduction of automobiles and trucks in the 20th century was there much improvement.

The road and highway system expanded rapidly after World War II, but by Western standards it is still primitive. The network of all-weather roads and highways is not a unified national system with consistent standards, and many of the roads are poor. There are also gaps and bottlenecks. For example, until 1957 there was no bridge over the Yantgze River, and by the early 1980s there were only three.

Despite its shortcomings, the road network is probably adequate to meet current needs. China has only a small number of cars, trucks, and buses as compared with the United States or Japan. In the early 1990s there were only about 7 million motor vehicles, two thirds of which were trucks and buses. China produces only about 200,000 trucks annually and very few automobiles. An increasing number of cars are owned privately. The highway network accounts for only about 2 percent of total freight traffic. Planning for major changes has not received high priority.

Air transportation

Civil air transportation in China dates from World War II and the efforts of Claire Chennault, then a retired United States colonel, to build a Chinese air force. After 1949 the new government set up the General Administration of Civil Aviation of China (GACAC), which has continued to serve as the nation's domestic and international air carrier. Most major cities are served by domestic flights, and a few large cities like Canton, Shanghai, and Beijing have international service. GACAC planes fly to Europe, Japan, the United States, and South Asia. Some provincial and urban authorities operate intercity airlines that carry passengers and freight.

Shipping

Ocean shipping has grown rapidly since 1970. By 1980 China's merchant fleet was large enough to carry about three quarters of China's merchandise trade that moved by sea. In addition, China controlled another fleet of merchant ships registered in Hong Kong. China also has a domestic fleet serving inland and coastal waters.

China builds most of its own ships, some of which are exported. For example, many of the containerships (as well as containers) being built are for export. The government plans to continue expanding the country's shipping capacity.

Despite large investments in railroad and highway construction, transportation continues to be a bottleneck slowing economic growth. Most people travel little and do not have access to the rail or highway system for other than very short trips. More than 90 percent of the freight in China moves by rail or water, and this seemed unlikely to change before the end of the century. This situation has produced significant variations in regional economic growth.

The Communist Party

The Chinese Communist party is the primary political force in China. Unlike parties in Western democracies, it is a tightly organized movement that controls and leads society at all levels. The party sets policy and controls its execution through government officials who are also party members. The effect is to make the government an organ of the party.

At the time of its founding in 1921, the Chinese Communist party focused on organizing urban workers, but it achieved only limited success in this effort. Orthodox Marxism expected the Communist Revolution to begin among industrial workers. However, Karl Marx had developed his theories based upon highly industrialized economies, and the industrial sector in China was small and relatively primitive. It was Mao Zedong who adapted Marxist theory to the conditions of an underdeveloped, primarily agricultural society (see Mao Zedong). Although Mao's successors downgraded some of his more radical ideas, Marxism-Leninism-Mao Thought—Marxism as it was interpreted by Mao—is still officially designated as the guiding philosophy that is behind both the party and the government.

The Chinese Communist party is organized as a hierarchy, with power concentrated at the top. Above the local units, or cells, is a pyramid-like structure of party congresses and committees at various levels, culminating in the National Party Congress. The national congress is supposed to meet every five years, though this has not always been the case. When it is not in session, direction of the party is in the hands of a Central Committee of about 200 members, which is elected by the congress. The Central Committee, in turn, elects the Political Bureau, which in 1992 consisted of 19 members. It is within the Political Bureau and its elite Standing Committee that power is concentrated and the highest level decisions of state are made. There is also a secretariat that carries on the day-to-day business of the party.

Prior to 1982, the highest party office was that of chairman, held for more than 25 years, through most of the People's Republic's history to that time, by Mao Zedong. In an effort to ensure that the power Mao had enjoyed was never again concentrated in one person, a new party constitution adopted in 1982 abolished the chairmanship and replaced it with the administrative position of general secretary to the Secretariat. The constitution also established a body called the Central Advisory Commission to assist and advise the Central Committee. One of the objects of the commission was to encourage elderly party leaders to continue to be active in various functions of the Communist party. The commission became an obstacle to reform and was abolished in 1992.

Theoretically, party membership is open to anyone over 18 who accepts the party program and is willing to work actively in one of its organizations. Members are expected to abide by the party's discipline and to serve as model workers. The backbone of the party consists of full-time paid workers known as cadres (Chinese, ganbu). The term cadre is also used for public officials holding responsible positions who may or may not be members of the party.

The National Government

The People's Republic was first governed according to the ‘Common Program' and organic laws adopted in 1949. Four constitutions followed, each reflecting shifts in policy and the balance of power among factions of the top leadership. The 1982 constitution was designed to solidify the position of the leadership after Mao.

Like the party, the government structure forms a pyramid, ranging from local units such as residents' (urban) and villagers' committees through counties and prefectures to the 21 provinces, five autonomous regions, and three special status municipalities (Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin), each with its people's congress and administrative organs. At the top of the government structure is the national government in Beijing.

Legislative authority is vested in the National People's Congress, and the Standing Committee of the Congress exercises its functions between sessions. The highest administrative organ is the State Council (similar to the United States Cabinet), headed by the premier. The 1975 constitution abolished the post of president (chairman of the republic), and for a time the chairman of the Standing Committee served as nominal head of state. The presidency was reinstated by the constitution of 1982.

The court system parallels the administrative system. However, the Chinese have traditionally tended to resolve conflicts through social rather than legal or judicial mediation, and the rule of law as it is known in Western countries is not well established. There are few lawyers, and legal methods are not familiar to most Chinese.

International Relations

The People's Republic has undergone several shifts in foreign policy since 1949. Initially, it was closely tied to the Soviet Union and firmly identified as a member of the socialist camp.

Within a few years, however, the Sino-Soviet relationship had begun to deteriorate, the victim, among other factors, of differing national interests, differing interpretations of Marxism, and Chinese resentment over heavy-handed Soviet attempts at control. By the mid-1960s China and the Soviet Union had become openly hostile toward each other.

China was largely isolated from the rest of the world during the height of the Cultural Revolution, but when the upheavals subsided it began to take a more practical foreign policy line. Trade was opened up with a number of Western countries, China started to play an active role in international organizations, and diplomatic relations were established with countries willing to recognize the People's Republic—rather than the Nationalist government on Taiwan—as the government of China. Most dramatically, contacts were begun with the United States, leading to full diplomatic recognition on Jan. 1, 1979.

While China's political system changed little by the 1990s, its economy had become the fastest-growing in the world. Relations with the United States became unstable on two fronts. The Chinese government refused to allow the human rights concerns to become an issue in trade talks. Trade itself became a major issue, as exports to the United States exceeded imports. In addition, North Korea's probable possession of nuclear weapons posed an unsettling problem for China and the United States in the mid-1990s.

Beginnings and Early History

Archaeological evidence suggests that China is one of the cradles of the human race. The earliest known human in China, whose fossilized skull was unearthed in Shanxi Province in 1963, is believed to date back to 600,000 BC. The remains of Sinanthropus pekinensis, known as Peking Man and dating back to 400,000 BC, were excavated in 1923 at Zhoukoudianzhen near Peking. Peking Man was closely related to Pithecanthropus of Java and lived during the Old Stone Age. In the upper caves of Zhoukoudianzhen are found artifacts of a late Old Stone Age man (50,000–35,000 BC), who ranks in age with the Cro-Magnon of Europe. This was an early form of Homo sapiens, or modern man, who made tools out of bones as well as stones, made clothes out of animal hides, and knew how to make fire.Around the 4th or 3rd millennium BC, in the New Stone Age, great changes occurred in the lives of the ancient Chinese. Larger numbers of people began living together at settled places, cultivating land, and domesticating animals. These people made polished stone tools and built shelters in pit dwellings and beehive huts that were covered with reed roofs. Such villages were found mostly in the area of the great bend of the Huang He on the North China Plain. Despite its severe winters, this area was well suited to agriculture. In fact, it closely resembled the other cradles of ancient civilizations, such as the valley of the Nile in Egypt.

The people of this period (3000–2000 BC) also developed the art of making pottery for storing food and drink. Two distinct types have been discovered: red clay pots with swirling black designs in the northwest near Yangshao village, and smooth black pottery in northeast China near Lungshan, a site in Shandong Province.

The Shang Dynasty (1766–1122 BC)

Before the Shang, Chinese tradition mentions a Hsia Dynasty, but for lack of evidence, the Hsia is still considered a legendary period. Until the late 1920s the Shang Dynasty too was thought to be legendary but discoveries made near the modern city of Anyang (the site of the Shang capital) in Henan Province proved that the dynasty existed. The most important of these discoveries was the finding of over 100,000 bones and shells with still-recognizable characters inscribed on them. These oracle bones and shells, originally used as religious objects, represent the earliest form of the Chinese writing system. In addition to the oracle bones and shells, the superb Shang bronzes and the tombs of the Shang rulers reveal a highly developed society.

The Shang are distinguished from the New Stone Age people by their settled life-style and their highly developed bronze-making technique. The Shang used bronze to make weapons, daily tools, and elaborately decorated sacrificial vessels.

The last Shang ruler was reportedly evil and tyrannical. He was overthrown by a revolt of the people, who were aided by the neighboring Chou people. The leader of the Chou was named Wu. With his brother's help, he defeated the Shang and founded the Chou Dynasty.

The Chou Dynasty (1122–221 BC)

The Chou conquest of the Shang was given an important meaning by later moralistic interpretations of the event. The Chou kings, whose chief deity was heaven, called themselves “Sons of Heaven,” and their success in overcoming the Shang was seen as the “mandate of heaven.” From this time on, Chinese rulers were called “Sons of Heaven” and the Chinese Empire, the “Celestial Empire.” The transfer of power from one dynasty to the next was based on the mandate of heaven.Chou rule in China continued for nearly nine centuries. During that time great advances were made. The long period of the Chou Dynasty is divided into two subperiods: Western (Early) and Eastern (Later) Chou, named for the locations of the capitals.

The Ch'in Empire (221–206 BC)

After nearly 900 years, the Chou Dynasty came to an end when the state of Ch'in, the strongest of the seven surviving states, unified China and established the first empire in 221 BC. The Ch'in empire did not last long, but it left two enduring legacies: the name China and the idea and structure of the empire. This heritage outlasted the Ch'in Dynasty itself by more than 2,000 years. (See also Ch'in Dynasty.)

The first Ch'in emperor was called Ch'in Shih Huang Ti. The title of emperor was used for the first time in Chinese history to set the Ch'in ruler apart—as the ruler of the unified land—from the kings, the heads of the earlier, smaller states. The construction of massive palaces and the ceremony of the court further enhanced the power of the emperor by inspiring awe in the people.

A centralized bureaucracy replaced the old feudal system. The empire was divided into provinces and counties, which were governed by centrally appointed governors and magistrates. The former ruling families who had inherited their places in the aristocracy were uprooted and forced to live in the capital of Xianyang. Other centralizing policies included census taking and standardization of the writing system and weights and measures.

The Ch'in army conducted massive military campaigns to complete the unification of the empire and expand its territory. The Ch'in empire stretched from the Mongolian plateau in the north to Vietnam in the south. As with rulers before and after him, the first emperor was preoccupied with defending his territory against northern nomads. After waging several successful campaigns, the emperor ordered the building of the wall of “ten thousand li” (a li is a Chinese unit of distance) to protect the empire. This task involved connecting the separate walls that were built by former northern states to form the famous Great Wall. The Ten Thousand Li Wall, as it is known in China, is 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) long, from 15 to 50 feet (5 to 15 meters) high, and from 15 to 25 feet (5 to 8 meters) wide. Although closely linked with the first ruler of the Ch'in Empire, the wall as it stands today dates mainly from the later Ming Dynasty.

Ch'in Shih Huang Ti's harsh rule provoked much opposition. The emperor feared the scholars most. He had them rounded up and put them to death or sent them into exile. Many went into hiding. Moreover, all books, except technical ones, were confiscated and burned. In the last years of his life, Ch'in Shih Huang Ti became fearful of threats on his life and lived in complete secrecy. He also became obsessed with obtaining immortality. He died in 210 BC in Shandong Province, far from the capital of Xianyang, during one of his long quests to find the elixir of life.

The Ch'in empire disintegrated rapidly after the death of the first emperor. The legitimate heir was killed in a palace intrigue, and a less able prince was put on the throne. Conditions worsened throughout the empire. In 209 BC, rebellions erupted all over China. Two men had the largest following. Hsiang Yü was a general of aristocratic background; Liu Pang was a minor official from a peasant family. By 206 BC rebels had subdued the Ch'in army and destroyed the capital. The struggle between Hsiang Yü and Liu Pang continued for the next four years, however, until Liu Pang emerged as the victor in 202 BC. Taking the title of Kao Tsu, High Progenitor, he established the Han Dynasty.

The Han Empire (202 BC–AD 220)